Pueblo republic

Pueblo confederation
Owingeh confederation
1680–1692
The Pueblo confederation was the first postcolonial state in the Americas.
The Pueblo confederation was the first postcolonial state in the Americas.
CapitalTaos Pueblo
Official languagesTiwa, Tewa, Towa, Keres, Hopi, Zuni
Religion
Pueblo religion
DemonymPueblo
GovernmentFederal republic of Pueblos, or Owingeh
Cacique 
• 1680 — c. 1683
Po'pay (first)
• c. 1683 — 1692
Luis Tupatu (last)
Historical eraAge of Revolution
1680
• Disestablished
1692
• Cantón
1837
Preceded by		Succeeded by
All Pueblo Council
Santa Fe de Nuevo México
All Pueblo Council
Santa Fe de Nuevo México
Today part ofNew Mexico, Arizona, Texas, and Colorado

After the Pueblo Revolt ejected the Spanish Empire from colonial New Mexico in 1680, the Pueblo peoples established a republican confederation from 1680 to 1692. The Pueblo confederation was the first postcolonial polity in the Americas, and the first successful Indigenous revolt against a European Empire in the Western Hemisphere.

The Pueblo peoples practiced a republican form of government based on consensus decision-making since time immemorial at the level of city states. The All Pueblo Council coordinated governance between Pueblos since possibly as early as the 1300s, and was the forerunner of the Pueblo confederation. In 1598 the Spanish conquistador Juan de Oñate colonized New Mexico with the permission from the All Indina Pueblo Council, which swore allegiance to monarchy of Spain. During the 1680 Pueblo Revolt against the Spanish the Pueblo confederation expelled the Hispanos of New Mexico and their Pueblo allies who fled to El Paso del Norte in today's Ciudad Juárez. Revolutionary leader Po'pay became the first leader of the confederation.

Po'pay sought to undo Spanish cultural influences and restore the traditional Pueblo religion. The Pueblo confederation was the first sovereign pan-Pueblo polity; Po'pay's rule was controversial to those preferring the earlier tradition of local governance prior to the Spanish colonial period. His successor Luis Tupatu began negotiations for a possible Spanish return in 1683. The Spanish returned in 1692, and agreed to name Tupatu Governor of Norther New Mexico. However a Second Pueblo Revolt soon broke out that ended with Tupatu's exile. The All Pueblo Council continued after the end of the confederation and would later become the All Pueblo Council of Governors.

Pueblo historians Joe Sando and Alfonso Ortiz describe the Pueblo confederation as a forerunner of the United States in the later American Revolution and the earliest possible beginning of the Age of Revolution. The Pueblo peoples and their Hispano allies would later govern the Cantón de Nuevo México during the Rio Arriba Rebellion of 1837.

Background

The location of the Pueblo villages and their neighbors in early New Mexico.

Pueblo peoples practiced a republican form of government since time immemorial within the different pueblos.[1] The All Pueblo Council may have existed as early as the 1300s.[2]

In the 1540s the estimated Pueblo population was around 30,000 spread across at least 110 pueblos, according to authors and sources such as Antonio de Espejo, Alonso de Benavides, Relacion del Suceso and Agustín de Vetancurt.[3][4] For more than 100 years beginning in 1540, the Pueblo people of present-day New Mexico were subjected to successive waves of soldiers, missionaries, and settlers. These encounters, referred to as entradas (incursions), were characterized by violent confrontations between Spanish colonists and Pueblo peoples. The Tiguex War, fought in the winter of 1540–41 by the expedition of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado against the twelve or thirteen pueblos of Tiwa Native Americans, was particularly destructive to Pueblo and Spanish relations.

In 1598, Juan de Oñate led 129 soldiers and 10 Franciscan priests, plus a large number of women, children, servants, slaves, and livestock, into the Rio Grande valley of New Mexico. There were at the time approximately 40,000 Pueblo Native Americans inhabiting the region.[5] In 1598 the Council gave the Spanish Empire permission to settle the Rio Grande Valley and swore a loyalty oath to the Spanish crown.[2]

The following year, Oñate put down a revolt at Acoma Pueblo by killing and enslaving hundreds of the Native Americans and sentencing all men 25 or older to have a foot cut off. A troop of seventy soldiers was dispatched to the cliff-top Pueblo of Acoma in 1599 to punish the Pueblo for the killing of twelve Spanish soldiers by a band of warriors. After two days of warfare, almost 600 Acoma men, women, and children were seized and enslaved, with many being legally convicted and disfigured as punishment for crimes against the Spanish Crown. The survivors fled as the Pueblo was destroyed by fire. The harshness with which the Acomas were punished left an unforgettable sense of Spanish cruelty. The Ácoma Massacre would instill fear of and anger at the Spanish in the region for years to come. Franciscan missionaries were assigned to several of the Pueblo towns to Christianize the natives.[6][7][8][9]

Spanish colonial policies in the 1500s regarding the humane treatment of native citizens were often ignored on the northern frontier. With the establishment of the first permanent colonial settlement in 1598, the Pueblos were forced to provide tribute to the colonists in the form of labor, ground corn, and textiles. Encomiendas were soon established by colonists along the Rio Grande, restricting Pueblo access to fertile farmlands and water supplies and placing a heavy burden upon Pueblo labor.[10] Especially egregious to the Pueblo was the assault on their traditional religion. Franciscan priests established theocracies in many of the Pueblo villages. In 1608, when it looked as though Spain might abandon the province, the Franciscans baptized seven thousand Pueblos to try to convince the Crown otherwise.[11] Although the Franciscans initially tolerated manifestations of the old religion as long as the Puebloans attended mass and maintained a public veneer of Catholicism, Fray Alonso de Posada (in New Mexico 1656–1665) outlawed Kachina dances by the Pueblo people and ordered the missionaries to seize and burn their masks, prayer sticks, and effigies.[12] The Franciscan missionaries also forbade the use of entheogenic substances in the traditional religious ceremonies of the Pueblo. Some Spanish officials, such as Nicolás de Aguilar, who attempted to curb the power of the Franciscans were charged with heresy and tried before the Inquisition.[13] The Pueblos by and large resented the missionaries, with the Hopis in particular referring to Spanish priests as tūtáachi, "dictator and demanding person."[14]

In the 1670s drought swept the region, causing a famine among the Pueblo and increased raids by the Apache, which Spanish and Pueblo soldiers were unable to prevent. Fray Alonso de Benavides wrote multiple letters to the King, describing the conditions, noting "the Spanish inhabitants and Indians alike eat hides and straps of carts".[15] The unrest among the Pueblos came to a head in 1675. Governor Juan Francisco Treviño ordered the arrest of forty-seven Pueblo medicine men and accused them of practicing "sorcery".[16] Four medicine men were sentenced to death by hanging; three of those sentences were carried out, while the fourth prisoner committed suicide. The remaining men were publicly whipped and sentenced to prison. When this news reached the Pueblo leaders, they moved in force to Santa Fe, where the prisoners were held. Because a large number of Spanish soldiers were away fighting the Apache, Governor Treviño was forced to accede to the Pueblo demand for the release of the prisoners. Among those released was a San Juan ("Ohkay Owingeh" in the Tewa Language) native named "Popé".[16] Po'pay's imprisonment and release five years before the Revolt led to his role in planning and orchestrating the events of 1680. Po'pay was considered a credible and respected provocateur by two dozen communities speaking six different languages and spread over a nearly 400-mile radius from Taos to the Hopi villages.[17]

Po'pay

Po'pay of Ohkay Owingeh appears in history in 1675 as one of 47 religious leaders of the northern Pueblo arrested by Juan Francisco Trevino's government for "witchcraft." Three were executed and one committed suicide. The others were whipped, imprisoned in Santa Fe, and sentenced to be sold into slavery. Seventy Pueblo warriors showed up at the governor's office and demanded, politely but persistently, that Po'pay and the others be released. The governor complied, probably in part because the colony was being seriously targeted by Apaches and Navajo warring parties and he could not afford to risk a Pueblo revolt.[18] Po'pay was described as a "fierce and dynamic individual…who inspired respect bordering on fear in those who dealt with him.[19]

After his release, Po'pay retired to the remote Taos Pueblo and began planning a rebellion.[20] Po'pay's message was simple: destroy the Spanish and their influence and go back to the old ways of life that had given the Pueblos relative peace, prosperity, and independence. The Pueblo revolt displayed "all the classic characteristics of a revitalization movement...the emergence of a charismatic leader, the development of a core group of followers who spread the prophet's message to the wider public; and, ultimately the successful transformation of Pueblo cultures and communities."[21][22]

Popé took up residence in Taos Pueblo, about 70 miles north of the capital of Santa Fe, and spent the next five years seeking support for a revolt among the 46 Pueblo towns. He gained the support of the Northern Tiwa, Tewa, Towa, Tano, and Keres-speaking Pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley. Because of the language barrier separating the six tribes, the revolt utilized Spanish as the unofficial lingua franca. The Pecos Pueblo, 50 miles east of the Rio Grande pledged its participation in the revolt as did the Zuni and Hopi, 120 and 200 miles respectively west of the Rio Grande. The Pueblos not joining the revolt were the four southern Tiwa (Tiguex) towns near Santa Fe and the Piro Pueblos south of the principal Pueblo population centers near the present day city of Socorro. The southern Tiwa and the Piro were more thoroughly integrated into Spanish culture than the other groups.[23] The Spanish population of about 2,400, of which a plurality were mixed-blood mestizos, along with native servants and retainers, was scattered thinly throughout the region. Santa Fe was the only place that approximated being a town. The Spanish could only muster 170 men with arms.[24] The Pueblos joining the revolt probably had 2,000 or more adult men capable of using native weapons such as the bow and arrow.[25] It is possible that some Apache and Navajo participated in the revolt.

The Pueblo Revolt was typical of millenarian movements in colonial societies. Popé promised that, once the Spanish were killed or expelled, the ancient Pueblo gods would reward them with health and prosperity.[23] Popé's plan was that the inhabitants of each Pueblo would rise up and kill the Spanish in their area and then all would advance on Santa Fe to kill or expel all the remaining Spanish. The date set for the uprising was August 11, 1680. Popé dispatched runners to all the Pueblos carrying knotted cords. Pedro Omtua and Nicolas Catua were the two young men. On August 8, 1680, two young men from Tesuque set out for Tanogeh (Tano villages) early in the morning. Their first contact occurred in Pecos. Unfortunately, Fray Fernandao De Velasco was informed right away by Christian Indians that two Tewa young men had visited the war chief's house. After leaving Pecos, the two Tesuque runners continued on to Galisteo, San Cristobal, and San Marcos.[26]

Pueblo Revolt

The last few years had been relatively quiet and free from internal dissent, and the Spanish in the capital city of Santa Fe were astonished as a report came to the governor early in the morning of August 10 that a Spanish priest had been killed at a Pueblo only nine miles from Santa Fe.[27] By August 15, 1,000 Spaniards had taken refuge in the Governor's palace in Santa Fe, and they were besieged by a Pueblo army led by Popé they estimated (or overestimated) to number 2,500. Other Spanish survivors had taken refuge in the friendly Pueblo of Isleta, from where they fled southward.

On August 21 the Spanish broke out of the Palace and began a long trek south, leaving New Mexico behind and not stopping until they reached El Paso. The Pueblos did not molest the departing colonists. The survivors numbered nearly 2,000 persons. The revolt cost 400 Spanish lives, including 21 of the 33 priests in New Mexico.[28]

History

The Palace of the Governors in Santa Fe, seen here in a 1930s postcard, was besieged by the Pueblo in August 1680.

The retreat of the Spaniards left New Mexico in the power of the Pueblo peoples.[29]

Po'pay establishes the Pueblo confederation

Apparently, Popé and his two lieutenants, Alonso Catiti from Santo Domingo and Luis Tupatu from Picuris, traveled from town to town ordering a return "to the state of their antiquity." All crosses, churches, and Christian images were to be destroyed. The people were ordered to cleanse themselves in ritual baths, to use their traditional names, and to destroy all vestiges of the Roman Catholic religion and Spanish culture, including Spanish livestock and fruit trees. Popé, it was said, forbade the planting of wheat and barley and commanded those natives who had been married according to the rites of the Catholic Church to dismiss their wives and to take others after the old native tradition.[30]

Each pueblo was self-governing, and some, or all, apparently resisted Popé's demands for a return to a pre-Spanish existence. The paradise Popé had promised when the Spanish were expelled did not materialize. A drought continued, destroying Pueblo crops, and the raids by Apache and Navajo increased. Initially, however, the Pueblo peoples were united in their objective of preventing a return of the Spanish.[31]

Po'pay had succeeded in expelling the Spanish from New Mexico and according to later accounts, possibly prejudiced, set himself up as the sole ruler of all the Pueblos. He attempted to destroy every trace of the Spanish presence in New Mexico. "The God of the Christians is dead," he proclaimed. "He was made of rotten wood."[32]

A Spanish force of 300 men attempted to regain a foothold in New Mexico in 1681, but was repelled by Po'pay's army. Another Spanish effort in 1687 also failed. But the expulsion of the Spanish had not brought peace and prosperity to the Pueblos. A return to the traditional religion did not bring rain to ease a drought that destroyed crops. The Apaches and Navajo stepped up their raids on the Pueblos and the Indians recalled that the Spaniards had provided some protection from the raiders. Traditional rivalries divided the Pueblo villages. Po'pay's efforts to rule over all the Pueblos were resented and he was considered a tyrant by many Pueblos. Moreover, among the Pueblos were sincere Christians with ties of family and friendship with the Spanish. Opposition to Spanish rule had given the Pueblos the incentive to unite, but not the means to remain united once their common enemy was vanquished.

Luis Tupatu invites the Spanish to return

Po'pay remains a mysterious figure in the history of the American Southwest as there are many tales among the Pueblo peoples of what happened to him after the revolt. What is known is that he was succeeded by Luis Tupatu of Picuris Pueblo around or before 1683. In 1683, Tupatu sent an emissary Juan Punsilli of Picuris to negotiate peace and invite the Spanish to return to New Mexico if they did so peacefully, without killing people or burning homes. After Po'pay was replaced by Luis Tupatu, the governing extent of the Pueblo confederation may have been reduced to only the northern thirteen Pueblos.[33] Po'pay died, probably in 1688, with the united Pueblo state he envisioned divided and weak. In 1692, Governor Diego de Vargas, with an army of 150 Spanish soldiers and pro-Spanish Pueblo warriors, attempted reconquest. Vargas promised pardon rather than punishment and most of the Pueblos gradually acceded to Spanish rule although violent opposition to Spanish rule continued for several years. Only the distant Hopi, living in what is today Arizona, retained their independence although many Pueblos also took up residence among the Navajo and Apaches.[34]

The Spanish return to New Mexico was prompted by their fears of French advances into the Mississippi valley and their desire to create a defensive frontier against the increasingly aggressive nomadic tribes on their northern borders.[35][36] In August 1692, Diego de Vargas marched to Santa Fe unopposed along with a converted Zia war captain, Bartolomé de Ojeda. De Vargas, with only sixty soldiers, one hundred Indian auxiliaries or native soldiers, seven cannons (which he used as leverage against the Pueblo inside Santa Fe), and one Franciscan priest, arrived at Santa Fe on September 13. He promised the 1,000 Pueblo people assembled there clemency and protection if they would swear allegiance to the King of Spain and return to the Christian faith. After a while the Pueblo rejected the Spaniards. After much persuading, the Spanish finally made the Pueblo agree to peace. On September 14, 1692,[37] de Vargas proclaimed a formal act of repossession. It was the thirteenth town he had reconquered for God and King in this manner, he wrote jubilantly to the Conde de Galve, viceroy of New Spain.[37] During the next month de Vargas visited other Pueblos and accepted their acquiescence to Spanish rule.

Though the 1692 agreement to peace was bloodless, in the years that followed de Vargas maintained increasingly severe control over the increasingly defiant Pueblo. De Vargas returned to Mexico and gathered together about 800 people, including 100 soldiers, and returned to Santa Fe on December 16, 1693.[38] This time, however, 70 Pueblo warriors and 400 family members within the town opposed his entry. De Vargas and his forces staged a quick and bloody recapture that concluded with the surrender and execution of the 70 Pueblo warriors on December 30, and their surviving families (about 400 women and children) were sentenced to ten years' servitude and distributed to the Spanish colonists as slaves.[39][40]

Second Pueblo Revolt

In 1696 the residents of fourteen pueblos attempted a second organized revolt, launched with the murders of five missionaries and thirty-four settlers and using weapons the Spanish themselves had traded to the natives over the years; de Vargas's retribution was unmerciful, thorough and prolonged.[39][41] By the end of the century the last resisting Pueblo town had surrendered and the Spanish reconquest was essentially complete. Many of the Pueblos, however, fled New Mexico to join the Apache or Navajo or to attempt to re-settle on the Great Plains.[35] After the Pueblos were defeated, the Picuris—under the leadership of Luis Tupatu—joined their longtime allies, the Jicarilla Apaches, in El Cuartolejo, which is now in western Kansas and lies east of Pueblo, Colorado.[42]

Constituent Pueblos

The Pueblo confederation was organized according to the traditional Pueblo principles of republicanism made up of self-governing Pueblos, known as Owingeh in Tewa.[1][6][7][43][8] Po'pay attempted to erase Spanish religious and cultural practices such as Catholicism, monarchism, and horse riding, and collected tribute in Santa Fe to fund the national government.[6][7][8] The idea of a level of government above the Pueblos was controversial at the time, as it went against earlier norms of city-state independence. This debate was a forerunner of a similar one around a century later between the Federalist and Anti-Federalists in the 1790s United States.[6][7][8]

Not all of the Pueblos were part of the confederation. By the time Luis Tupatu had replaced Po'pay, it is possible that only the northern thirteen Pueblos were still part of the polity.[33]

Certain southern Pueblos aligned with the Spanish fled with them to El Paso del Norte, in contemporary Ciudad Juárez. During the Pueblo Revolt, the Spanish-aligned Piro Pueblo of Senecú was abandoned. Rather than return to New Mexico, the people of this pueblo settled in the El Paso district in a village called Senecú del Sur.[44] Rumors have it that some Piro stayed in New Mexico, however Diego de Vargas did not find anyone inhabiting the pueblo when he passed by it in 1691 and 1692. The pueblo was not resettled after the Spanish re-conquest. The pueblo's ruins were visible to travelers throughout the 18th century, but they have not been seen since then.[44]

Spanish refugees stopped in the Piro Socorro Pueblo of Socorro before continuing south, out of the province, to safety. A number of Piro Pueblo people followed them. The withdrawal of Spanish soldiers left Socorro and its Piro inhabitants vulnerable to attack by soldiers from Apache bands and other tribes. By 1692 the settlement was in ruins.[45]

Some Catholic Tiwa-speaking Pueblo people from the Rio Grande Valley also fled with the Spanish. In 1982 these Tiwa-speakers established the new Pueblo of Tigua (Ysleta del Sur Pueblo) to the north, around today's El Paso. The Pueblo confederation never governed this new Pueblo of Tigua, which was allied to the Spanish.[6][7][8]

Legacy

The Pueblo confederation was the first postcolonial republic established against European colonial rule. Scholar Joe Sando describes it as the First American Revolution.[6][7][8]

The Pueblos independence from Spanish suzerainty lasted for a dozen years. The Pueblo Revolt and resulting confederation gave the Pueblo peoples a greater measure of freedom from future Spanish efforts to eradicate their culture and religion following the reconquest, as was promised by de Vargas to Tupatu and the rest of the Pueblo leadership.[46][6][7][8] Moreover, the Spanish issued substantial land grants to each Pueblo and appointed a public defender to protect the rights of the Native Americans and argue their legal cases in the Spanish courts. The Franciscan priests returning to New Mexico did not again attempt to impose a theocracy on the Pueblo who continued to practice their traditional religion.[36]

Both the Spanish and the Pueblos were decimated by the revolt and its aftermath. However, what can be said with certainty is that the relations between Spanish and the Pueblos were far different after the revolt than before. The dreaded encomienda system (forced labor) was prohibited in New Mexico. Franciscan priests did not interfere with Pueblo religious ceremonies provided that the Pueblos observed the outward forms of Catholicism. Pueblo warriors and Spanish soldiers became allies in the fight against their common enemies: the Apaches, Navajo, Utes, and a new and even greater threat to the survival of New Mexico, the Comanche.[47] Thus, New Mexico became a blend of Spanish and Pueblo culture.

The 1837 Río Arriba Rebellion was launched on the 157th's anniversary of the Pueblo Revolt and succeeded in briefly placing José María González and Pablo Montoya as governor of Mexico's Santa Fe de Nuevo México territory. González and Montoya were both Taos Pueblo Indigenous and led the independent Cantón de Nuevo México, also known as the Junta Popular, which was the most ethnically inclusive government in the history of New Mexico. They became the first Pueblo rulers in the history of New Mexico since Tupatu. The government was of the Junta Popular was a federal republic composed of individual Pueblos and Hispano towns, and "for the first and only time in the history of New Mexico, its duly elected governor was an Indian."[48] The Junta Popular "rebels demonstrated by their actions that they comprised an inclusive entity. They sent letters to the Pueblos inviting their leaders to participate in the Junta Popular. ... As the rebellion took root, two principles guided its actions: governmental power resided in leaders at the village level, and Pueblo Indians were to be included in all governing councils. It was the most inclusive government New Mexico has ever seen—past or present."[49]

Bear fetish & knotted cord
scars on back

On September 22, 2005, the Po'pay statue for the National Statuary Hall in the rotunda of the U.S. Congress building was unveiled. The artist, Cliff Fragua, was the first American Indian artist to have a statue placed in the Statuary Hall. The statue, slightly larger than life size, shows Po'Pay holding a knotted cord in his left hand, the signal for the initiation of the revolt. In his right hand is a bear fetish and behind him a pot, both symbolizing the Pueblo world and religion. On his back are the scars from the whipping he received as a consequence of his observing Pueblo religious ceremonies. Herman Agoyo of Ohkay Owingeh said: "To the Pueblo people here, Po'pay is our hero. Tribes were on the verge of losing their cultural identity when the Pueblo revolt brought everything back on track for our people." It is one of two statues presented by New Mexico to the National Statuary Hall Collection and is currently displayed in the Capitol Visitors' Center.[50]

See also

Notes

References

  1. 1 2 Crandall, Maurice. These People Have Always Been a Republic: Indigenous Electorates in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands, 1598-1912. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
  2. 1 2 Walden, Robin S. The Pueblo Confederation's Political Wing: The All Pueblo Council, 1920—1975 (Thesis). University of New Mexico.
  3. ↑ Krzywicki, Ludwik (1934). Primitive society and its vital statistics (PDF). Publications of the Polish Sociological Institute. London: Macmillan. pp. 318–543.
  4. ↑ Jenkins, Myra Ellen (1966). "Taos Pueblo and Its Neighbors, 1540–1847". New Mexico Historical Review. 41 (2): 86.
  5. ↑ Sando, Joe S.; Agoyo, Herman (2005). Po' pay: Leader of the First American Revolution. Santa Fe, New Mexico: Clear Light Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 9781574160642.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sando, Joe S. and Herman Agoyo, editors, Po'pay: Leader of the First American Revolution, Clear Light Publishing, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 2005
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sando, Joe S., Pueblo Nations: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1992
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Joe S. Sando. Pueblo Profiles: Cultural Identity through Centuries of Change. Clear Light Publishers, 1998.
  9. ↑ Riley, Carroll L. Rio del Norte: People of the Upper Rio Grande from Earliest Times to the Pueblo Revolt Salt Lake City: U of Utah Press, 1995, pp. 247–251
  10. ↑ Wilcox, Michael V., "The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of conquest: an Indigenous archaeology of contact", University of California Press, 2009
  11. ↑ Forbes, Jack D., "Apache, Navaho, and Spaniard", Oklahoma, 1960 p. 112
  12. ↑ Sando, Joe S., Pueblo Nations: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1992 pp. 61–62
  13. ↑ Sanchez, Joseph P. (1996). "Nicolas de Aguilar and the Jurisdiction of Salinas in the Province of New Mexico, 1659-1662". Revista Complutense de Historia de América. 22: 139.
  14. ↑ Hämäläinen, Pekka (2022). Indigenous Continent: The Epic Contest for North America. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-63149-699-8.
  15. ↑ Hackett, Charles Wilson. Historical Documents Relating to New Mexico, Nueva Vizacaya and Approaches Thereto in 1773, 3 vols, Washington, 1937
  16. 1 2 Sando, Joe S., Pueblo Nations: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1992 p. 63
  17. ↑ Sando, Joe S.; Agoyo, Herman (2005). Po' pay: Leader of the First American Revolution. Santa Fe, New Mexico: Clear Light Publishing. p. 86. ISBN 9781574160642.
  18. ↑ John, Elizabeth A. H., Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds, Lincoln: U of Neb Press, 1975, 94.
  19. ↑ MacDonald, Priscilla, "Pope: the Man behind the Legend," University of Lourdes, accessed May 1, 2010
  20. ↑ Ponce, Pedro, "Trouble for the Spanish: The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 Archived 2008-09-16 at the Wayback Machine", accessed Apr 14, 2010
  21. ↑ Liebmann, Matthew (2008). "The Innovative Materiality of Revitalization Movements: Lessons from the Pueblo Revolt of 1680" (PDF). American Anthropologist. 110 (3): 360–372. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00045.x. S2CID 9469508.
  22. ↑ MacDonald, 6.
  23. 1 2 Riley, p. 267
  24. ↑ John, Elizabeth A. H. Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1975, p. 96
  25. ↑ "The Peublo Revolt: The Pueblo Indians in the province of New Mexico had long chafed under Spanish rule. In 1680 all their grievances flared into a violent rebellion that surprised the Europeans with its ferocity - Document - Gale OneFile: Popular Magazines". go.gale.com. Retrieved 2021-10-17.
  26. ↑ Sando, Joe S.; Agoyo, Herman (2005). "The Pueblo Revolt". Po'pay: Leader of the First American Revolution. Sante Fe, New Mexico: Clear Light Publishing. pp. 28–29. ISBN 9781574160642.
  27. ↑ MacDonald, 7
  28. ↑ Riley, 268; John 101
  29. ↑ Richard Flint and Shirley Cushing Flint (2009). "Bartolome de Ojeda". New Mexico Office of the State Historian. Archived from the original on September 18, 2009. Retrieved July 6, 2009.
  30. ↑ Gutierrez, p. 136
  31. ↑ John, pp. 106–108
  32. ↑ MacDonald, 11.
  33. 1 2 Joe S. Sando. Pueblo Profiles: Cultural Identity through Centuries of Change. Clear Light Publishers, 1998, p.25
  34. ↑ John, 121-147.
  35. 1 2 Flint, Richard and Shirley Cushing, "de Vargas, Diego Archived 2012-03-24 at the Wayback Machine." New Mexico Office of the State Historian, accessed 29 Jul 2012
  36. 1 2 Gutierrez, p. 146
  37. 1 2 Kessell, John L., 1979. Kiva, Cross & Crown: The Pecos Indians and New Mexico, 1540–1840. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior: Washington, DC.
  38. ↑ Robert W. Preucel, Archaeologies of the Pueblo Revolt: Identity, Meaning, and Renewal in the Pueblo World (University of New Mexico Press, 2007) p. 207
  39. 1 2 Kessell, John L., Rick Hendricks, and Meredith D. Dodge (eds.), 1995. To the Royal Crown Restored (The Journals of Don Diego De Vargas, New Mexico, 1692–94). University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque.
  40. ↑ Ramón A. Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500–1846 (Stanford University Press, 1991) p. 145
  41. ↑ Kessell, John L., Rick Hendricks, and Meredith D. Dodge (eds.), 1998. Blood on the Boulders (The Journals of Don Diego De Vargas, New Mexico, 1694–97). University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque.
  42. ↑ Sando, Joe S. (1992). "Pueblo Nation: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History". Internet Archive. p. 75.
  43. ↑ Joe Sando, Pueblo Nations: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History (Santa Fe, N.Mex.: Clear Light Publishers, 1992), 13–18.
  44. 1 2 Harrington, John P. (1909) "Notes on the Piro Language" American Anthropologist New Series, 11, (4): pp. 563-594, p.564
  45. ↑ Marshal, Michael P. & Walt, Henry J., Rio Abajo: Prehistory and History of a Rio Grande Province (Santa Fe: New Mexico Historical Preservation Program, 1984), pp. 248–249.
  46. ↑ Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away Stanford: Stanford U Press, 1991
  47. ↑ "The West - Popé". PBS. Archived from the original on March 9, 2001. Retrieved 2011-10-15.
  48. ↑ Crandall 1985, p. 135.
  49. ↑ Crandall 1985, p. 133.
  50. ↑ "New Mexico Office of the State Historian : Popé". Newmexicohistory.org. 2005-05-21. Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2011-10-15.

Bibliography

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  • Florence Hawley Ellis An Outline of Laguna Pueblo History and Social Organization Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Winter, 1959), pp. 325–347
  • Indian Pueblo Cultural Center in Albuquerque, NM offers information from the Pueblo people about their history, culture, and visitor etiquette.
  • Gram, John R. (2015). Education at the Edge of Empire: Negotiating Pueblo Identity in New Mexico's Indian Boarding Schools. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
  • Paul Horgan, Great River: The Rio Grande in North American History. Vol. 1, Indians and Spain. Vol. 2, Mexico and the United States. 2 Vols. in 1. Wesleyan University Press 1991.
  • Pueblo People, Ancient Traditions Modern Lives, Marica Keegan, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1998, profusely illustrated hardback, ISBN 1-57416-000-1
  • Elsie Clews Parsons, Pueblo Indian Religion (2 vols., Chicago, 1939).
  • Ryan D, A. L. Kroeber Elsie Clews Parsons American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 45, No. 2, Centenary of the American Ethnological Society (Apr. – Jun. 1943), pp. 244–255
  • Parthiv S, ed. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 9, Southwest. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1976.
  • Keleher, Julia M.; Chant, Elsie Ruth (2009). The Padre of Islets – The Story of Father Anton Docher. Sunstone press Publishing.

Further Reading

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