Bibliography of Russian and Soviet science (Space programs)

This is a select bibliography of academic level English language books (including translations) and journal articles, published about the non-military space programs in Russia and the Soviet Union.[a] Book entries may have references to reviews published in academic journals or major newspapers when these could be considered helpful. These reference reviews also function as a resource to find other works on this subject.

For other areas of science and technology, please see:

A brief selection of English translations of primary sources is included. Additional bibliographies can be found in many of the book-length works listed below; see Further reading for several book and chapter-length bibliographies. The External links section contains entries for publicly available select bibliographies from universities.

Inclusion criteria

Works included are referenced in the notes or bibliographies of scholarly secondary sources or journals. Included works should either be published by an academic or widely distributed publisher, be authored by a notable subject matter expert as shown by scholarly reviews or have significant scholarly journal reviews about the work. To keep the bibliography length manageable, only items that clearly meet the criteria should be included.

Citation style

This bibliography uses APA style citations. Entries do not use templates. References to reviews and notes for entries do use citation templates. Where books which are only partially related to Russian or Soviet history are listed, the titles for chapters or sections should be indicated if possible, meaningful, and not excessive.

If a work has been translated into English, the translator should be included and a footnote with appropriate bibliographic information for the original language version should be included.

When listing works with titles or names published with alternative English spellings, the form used in the latest published version should be used and the version and relevant bibliographic information noted if it previously was published or reviewed under a different title.

General

The Soviet space program (Russian: Космическая программа СССР, romanized: Kosmicheskaya programma SSSR) was the state space program of the Soviet Union, active from 1951 until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.[1][2]

The State Corporation for Space Activities "Roscosmos", commonly known simply as Roscosmos (Роскосмос), is a state corporation of the Russian Federation responsible for space flights, cosmonautics programs, and aerospace research.[3]

Programs and missions

Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik

Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik (Russian: Днепропетровский Спутник; Ukrainian: Дніпропетровський супутник), or DS, was a series of satellites launched by the Soviet Union between 1961 and 1982. They served missions ranging from technological and scientific research to radar tracking targets for anti-satellite weapons and anti-ballistic missiles. 185 were launched on dedicated Kosmos rockets.[34][35]

Luna

The Luna programme (Луна, "Moon"), sometimes called Lunik by western media,[36] was a series of robotic spacecraft missions sent to the Moon by the Soviet Union between 1959 and 1976. Designed as orbiters or landers, they achieved many firsts in space exploration—including the first lunar flyby, first lunar impact, and first photos of the Moon's far side—and studied the Moon's chemical composition, gravity, temperature, and radiation. Twenty-four spacecraft were formally given the Luna designation, though more were launched: those failing to reach orbit went unacknowledged and unnumbered, while those failing in low Earth orbit usually received Cosmos designations.[37] The programme's estimated 1964 cost was US$6–10 billion[38] (equivalent to US$46–77 billion in 2024[39]). The Luna 25 mission continues the Luna designation, though it—along with planned missions Luna 26, Luna 27, and Luna 28—is considered part of the Luna-Glob programme.[40]

Luna-Glob

Luna-Glob (Russian: Луна-Глоб, "Lunar sphere") is a Moon exploration program by Roscosmos aimed at creating a fully robotic lunar base, after which it is intended to continue with crewed missions beginning with the Orel crewed orbiter.[41]

Based on plans dating to 1997, the program's first mission—the Luna 25 lander—was shelved after the 1998 Russian financial crisis and revived a few years later. Initially scheduled to launch in 2012[42] on a Soyuz-2 rocket,[43] it was repeatedly delayed—to 2014, 2015,[44][45] 2016,[46][47] 2018,[48] and 2019.[49] Roscosmos approved a model of the Luna 25 lander in 2017.[50]

Luna 25 launched successfully on 11 August 2023 but crashed on 19 August after an anomalous orbit-lowering maneuver.[51] As of February 2026, Luna 26 is planned for 2028, Luna 27 for 2029–2030, Luna 29 for 2032, Luna 28 for 2034, and Luna 30 for 2036. The planned Moon base would initially house no more than 4 people, later rising to a maximum of 12.[52]

Orel

Orel (Russian: Орёл, lit. 'Eagle')[53] or Oryol,[54] formerly Federation (Russian: Федерация, romanized: Federatsiya)[55] and PPTS (Russian: Перспективная Пилотируемая Транспортная Система, romanized: Perspektivnaya Pilotiruemaya Transportnaya Sistema, lit. 'Prospective Piloted Transport System'), is a Roscosmos project to develop a new-generation, partially reusable crewed spacecraft. Until 2016 its official name was PTK NP (Russian: Пилотируемый Транспортный Корабль Нового Поколения, lit. 'New Generation Piloted Transport Ship').

The project aims to produce a next-generation spacecraft to replace the Soviet-era Soyuz for low Earth orbit and lunar operations, similar in function to the US Orion or Commercial Crew Development spacecraft.[56]

Resurs-DK No.1

Resurs-DK No.1,[57] also called Resurs-DK1, was a commercial Earth observation satellite operated by NTs OMZ, the Russian Research Center for Earth Operative Monitoring. Designed for multi-spectral remote sensing of the Earth's surface, it transmitted high-resolution visible imagery (up to 0.9 m) to ground stations in near real-time via radio link, delivering value-added processed data to a wide range of consumers.

Sputnik

Sputnik 1 (/ˈspʌtnɪk, ˈspʊtnɪk/, Russian: Спутник-1, Satellite 1), often referred to as simply Sputnik, was the first artificial Earth satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957 as part of the Soviet space program. It sent a radio signal back to Earth for three weeks before its three silver-zinc batteries became depleted. Aerodynamic drag caused it to fall back into the atmosphere on 4 January, 1958.

TKS

The TKS spacecraft (Russian: Транспортный корабль снабжения, Transportnyi Korabl' Snabzheniia, lit. Transport Supply Spacecraft; GRAU index 11F72) was a Soviet spacecraft developed in the late 1960s to ferry crew, cargo, and fuel to the military Almaz space stations. It combined two independently operable parts: the VA spacecraft, a compact crew capsule for launch and re-entry, and the Functional Cargo Block (FGB), which carried cargo, docking hardware, and the main maneuvering engines, and could remain at the station after the VA returned to Earth. Though designed for both crewed and uncrewed flight, the TKS never entered operational service; of its four test flights, three docked with civilian Salyut stations. Its lasting legacy was the FGB design, which became the basis for station modules on Mir and the International Space Station.

Vega

The Vega program (Russian: Вега) was a series of Venus missions that also took advantage of the appearance of comet 1P/Halley in 1986. Vega 1 and Vega 2 were uncrewed spacecraft launched in a cooperative effort among the Soviet Union (who provided the spacecraft and launch vehicle) and European nations in December 1984. They had a two-part mission to investigate Venus, where each would release a lander and a balloon probe, and later conduct a flyby of Halley's Comet.

Venera

The Venera program (Russian: Вене́ра, pronounced [vʲɪˈnʲɛrə] 'Venus') was a series of space probes developed by the Soviet Union between 1961 and 1984 to gather information about the planet Venus. A total of eighteen probes were sent, including two related Vega probes.

Thirteen probes successfully entered the Venusian atmosphere, including the two Venera-Halley probes. Ten of those successfully landed on the surface of the planet. Due to the extreme conditions, the probes could only survive for a short period on the surface, from 23 minutes to two hours.[64]

The Venera program established a number of precedents in space exploration, among them being the first man-made devices to enter the atmosphere of another planet (Venera 3 on 1 March 1966), the first to make a soft landing on another planet (Venera 7 on 15 December 1970), the first to return images from another planet's surface (Venera 9 on 8 June 1975), the first to record sounds on another planet (Venera 13 on 30 October 1981), and the first to perform high-resolution radar mapping scans (Venera 15 on 2 June 1983). The intense pressures that led to the short lifespans of many of the probes were themselves an important finding.

Voskhod

The Voskhod programme (Russian: Восход, lit. 'ascent, dawn', IPA: [vɐsˈxot]) was the second Soviet human spaceflight project. Both a follow-on to the Vostok programme and a way of recycling components left over after that programme's cancellation following its first six flights, it flew two one-day crewed missions on the Voskhod spacecraft and rocket in 1964 and 1965, plus a 22-day flight carrying two dogs in 1966. It was superseded by the Soyuz programme.

Vostok

The Vostok programme (/ˈvɒstɒkˌvɒˈstɒk/ VOST-ok-,-vost-OK; Russian: Восток, IPA: [vɐˈstok] ⓘ, lit. 'East') was a Soviet human spaceflight project to put the first Soviet cosmonauts into low Earth orbit and return them safely. Competing with the United States' Project Mercury, it placed the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin, in a single orbit aboard Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961. The Vostok capsule was developed from the Zenit spy satellite project and its launch vehicle adapted from the existing R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM); the name "Vostok" stayed classified until Gagarin's flight was disclosed to the world press.

The programme flew six crewed missions between 1961 and 1963, the longest lasting nearly five days and the last four launched in pairs a day apart—exceeding Project Mercury's demonstrated limits of just over 34 hours and single-mission flights. Vostok was succeeded by two Voskhod programme flights in 1964 and 1965, which used three- and two-man modifications of the Vostok capsule and a larger launch rocket.

Zond

Zond (Russian: Зонд, lit. 'probe') was the name given to two distinct series of Soviet robotic spacecraft launched between 1964 and 1970. The first series, based on the 3MV planetary probe, was intended to gather information about nearby planets. Two tortoises and other lifeforms aboard Zond 5 were the first terrestrial organisms to travel around the Moon and return to Earth.

Joint missions and programs

Apollo–Soyuz Test Project

Shuttle–Mir

The Shuttle–Mir program (Russian: Программа «Мир»–«Шаттл») was a collaborative Russian–American space program in which American Space Shuttles visited the Russian space station Mir, Russian cosmonauts flew on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flew aboard a Soyuz spacecraft, enabling long-duration American expeditions aboard Mir.

International Space Station

Russia has been an ISS partner since the start of the program, launching the station's first module, Zarya, in 1998 and the Zvezda service module in 2000, which provides propulsion and attitude control for the station.[65] Russia expanded its segment with the Pirs, Poisk, Rassvet, and Nauka modules. The Soyuz spacecraft at times has been the only means of crew transportation and Progress cargo freighters have sustained station operations since 2000.[66]

Launch vehicles

Angara

  • Harvey, B. (2001). Russia in space: The failed frontier? Springer Praxis.
  • Harvey, B. (2007). The rebirth of the Russian space program: 50 years after Sputnik, new frontiers. Springer Praxis. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-71356-4

Energia and Buran

  • Hendrickx, B. (2002). The origins and evolution to the Energiya rocket family. Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 55, 242–278.
  • Hendrickx, B., & Vis, B. (2007). Energiya-Buran: The Soviet space shuttle. Springer Praxis. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73984-7

Proton

  • Bzhilianskaya, L. (1997). Russian launch vehicles on the world market: A case-study of international joint ventures. Space Policy, 13(4), 323–338. doi:10.1016/S0265-9646(97)00027-1
  • Lardier, C., & Barensky, S. (2018). The Proton launcher: History and developments. ISTE Ltd; John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781119510536
  • Siddiqi, A. A. (2000). Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the space race, 1945–1974 (NASA SP-2000-4408). National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Soyuz

  • Gerovitch, S. (2008). Stalin's rocket designers' leap into space: The technical intelligentsia faces the thaw. Osiris, 23(1), 189–209. doi:10.1086/591874 JSTOR 10.1086/591874
  • Lardier, C., & Barensky, S. (2013). The Soyuz launch vehicle: The two lives of an engineering triumph. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5459-5
  • Siddiqi, A. A. (2003). The rockets' red glare: Technology, conflict, and terror in the Soviet Union. Technology and Culture, 44(3), 470–501. doi:10.1353/tech.2003.0133 JSTOR 25148158
  • Siddiqi, A. A. (2004). Russians in Germany: Founding the post-war missile programme. Europe-Asia Studies, 56(8), 1131–1156. doi:10.1080/1465342042000308893 JSTOR 4147400
  • Siddiqi, A. A. (2008). Sputnik 50 years later: New evidence on its origins. Acta Astronautica, 63(1–4), 529–539. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2007.12.042
  • Siddiqi, A. A. (2010). The red rockets' glare: Spaceflight and the Russian imagination, 1857–1957. Cambridge University Press.

Space based telescopes

Astron

Astron was a Soviet space telescope launched on 23 March 1983 using the Proton-K rocket. Based on the 4MV spacecraft design and operational for six years, Astron was the largest ultraviolet space telescope of its time.

Gamma

The Gamma-1 telescope was the main instrument of the Soviet Gamma mission, designed to observe high-energy radiation from space. An onboard star tracker helped it point precisely at its targets, though an equipment failure early in the mission left it performing well below its intended capability. The telescope was first conceived in 1965 as part of a planned Soviet space station, and serious work began in 1972 with the goal of making it the first module of a modular station. When that station project was canceled in 1974 — the same year the effort became a joint venture with France — and the Soviet space program was later reorganized, the observatory was redesigned as a free-flying satellite. Production was approved in 1979 with a launch planned for 1984, but it did not actually fly until 1990.[67]

Granat

Granat was a Soviet (later Russian) space observatory developed with France, Denmark, and Bulgaria, launched in December 1989 on a Proton rocket into an orbit that allowed most of its time to be spent observing. It operated for nearly nine years, spending its first five conducting targeted observations of the universe across a broad range of high-energy radiation. After running out of the gas needed to aim itself in September 1994, it continued working in an automatic survey mode until transmissions ceased in November 1998. The observatory carried seven instruments, including a main telescope for imaging high-energy sources, a dedicated detector for sudden bursts of radiation, and a monitor that continuously watched the sky to alert the other instruments to new or interesting targets.[68]

Orion

The Orion space telescopes were a series of two instruments flown aboard Soviet spacecraft during the 1970s to conduct ultraviolet spectroscopy of stars.

Orion 1

Orion 2

Prognoz

Prognoz ("Forecast") was a Soviet scientific research satellite programme comprising three SO ("Solar Object") satellites, seven SO-M (modified SO), and two SO-M2, also known as Interball.

RELIKT-1

RELIKT-1 (Russian: РЕЛИКТ-1) was a Soviet cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropy experiment aboard the Prognoz 9 satellite. The first CMB satellite experiment, preceding the 1989 Cosmic Background Explorer, it operated from launch on 1 July 1983 until February 1984, measuring the CMB dipole and Galactic plane emission and setting upper limits on the quadrupole moment. Follow-ups RELIKT-2 (planned for about 1993) and a proposed RELIKT-3 were abandoned after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Rocket Astrophysical Observatories

Orbital Space Stations

Salyut and Almaz

The Salyut programme (Russian: Салют, IPA: [sɐˈlʲut], meaning "salute" or "fireworks") was the world's first space station programme, undertaken by the Soviet Union. Over 15 years, from 1971 to 1986, it comprised four crewed scientific research stations and two crewed military reconnaissance stations, with two further launches failing. The programme served a dual purpose: conducting long-term research into living in space along with astronomical, biological, and Earth-resources experiments, while also acting as a civilian cover for the highly secretive military Almaz stations, which flew under the Salyut designation. Salyut 1, the first station, became the world's first crewed space station.

The Almaz (Russian: Алмаз, lit. 'Diamond') program was a highly secret Soviet military space station program begun in the early 1960s. Three crewed military reconnaissance stations were launched between 1973 and 1976—Salyut 2, Salyut 3, and Salyut 5—each designated as a civilian Salyut space station to disguise the program's military nature. Salyut 2 failed shortly after reaching orbit, but Salyut 3 and Salyut 5 both conducted successful crewed testing. Following Salyut 5, the Soviet Ministry of Defense judged in 1978 that the time and resources consumed by station maintenance outweighed the benefits relative to automatic reconnaissance satellites. Still, the twin program had some achievements alongside the Salyut program, and its heritage continues—the International Space Station module Zarya being one example.

Mir

Mir (Russian: Мир, IPA: [ˈmʲir]; lit. 'peace' or 'world') was a space station in low Earth orbit, operated from 1986 to 2001 by the Soviet Union and then the Russian Federation. The first modular space station, assembled in orbit between 1986 and 1996, it was the largest artificial satellite of its era, surpassed only by the International Space Station (ISS) after the deorbit of Mir in 2001. Its crews conducted microgravity research in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and spacecraft systems, working toward technologies for the permanent occupation of space.

The first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit, Mir held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space (3,644 days) until the ISS surpassed it in 2010, and it still holds the record for the longest single human spaceflight: 437 days by Valeri Polyakov in 1994–1995. Crews typically numbered three, peaking at ten during STS-71. Occupied for twelve and a half of its fifteen years, the station hosted 105 cosmonauts and astronauts from 12 nations, who carried out 80 spacewalks.

Mir followed the Salyut programme's six crewed single-module stations in the Soviet space programme; its inaugural flight, Soyuz T-15, also made the only station-to-station trip, docking with Salyut 7. The station comprised seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components, beginning with the Core Module launched in 1986; Proton rockets launched every component except the Docking Module, installed by the Space Shuttle on STS-74. Powered by photovoltaic arrays on the modules, Mir was maintained in an orbit between 296 and 421 km (184 and 262 mi), completing 15.7 orbits per day at an inclination of 51.6°.

Soviet crewed lunar programs

  • Under construction

Soviet Deep Space Network

The Soviet Deep Space Network (or Russian Deep Space Network) is a network of large antennas and communication facilities that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions and radio and radar astronomy observations of the Solar System and the universe. Built for the space missions of the Soviet Union, it is now maintained by Russia. Similar networks are run by the United States, China, Europe, Japan, and India.

Cosmonauts

Academic journals

Very few journals are dedicated specifically to the history of science and technology in Russia and the Soviet Union; the specialist journal is listed first, followed by general history of science and technology journals and Russian, Soviet, and Slavic studies journals that regularly publish work in this field.

Specialist journal

  • Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniia i tekhniki (VIET; Studies in the History of Science and Technology). Institute for the History of Science and Technology, Russian Academy of Sciences (1980–present). ISSN 0205-9606. [In Russian, with English abstracts.]

History of science, technology, and medicine

Russian, Soviet, and Slavic studies

See also

References

Notes

  1. ↑ For information about military space based assets and programs, see Bibliography of Russian and Soviet science (Military technology).

Citations

  1. ↑ "Space Race Timeline".
  2. ↑ Reichl, Eugen (2019). The Soviet Space Program: The Lunar Mission Years: 1959–1976. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, Limited. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-7643-5675-9. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
  3. ↑ Federation, International Astronautical. "IAF : ROSCOSMOS". www.iafastro.org. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2022.
  4. ↑ Raleigh, Donald J. (2012). "Review of the book Into the Cosmos: Space Exploration and Soviet Culture, by J. T. Andrews & A. A. Siddiqi". The Russian Review. 71 (4): 713–714. JSTOR 23263965.
  5. ↑ Koenker, Diane P. (2012). "Review of the book Into the Cosmos: Space Exploration and Soviet Culture, by J. T. Andrews & A. A. Siddiqi". Slavic Review. 71 (4): 953–954. doi:10.5612/slavicreview.71.4.0953. JSTOR 10.5612/slavicreview.71.4.0953.
  6. ↑ Smith, Jenny Leigh (2013). "Review of the book Into the Cosmos: Space Exploration and Soviet Culture, by J. T. Andrews & A. A. Siddiqi". Technology and Culture. 54 (2): 419–420. doi:10.1353/tech.2013.0078. JSTOR 24468039.
  7. ↑ Josephson, Paul (2016). "Review of the book Voices of the Soviet Space Program: Cosmonauts, Soldiers, and Engineers Who Took the USSR into Space, by S. Gerovitch". Technology and Culture. 57 (2): 492–493. doi:10.1353/tech.2016.0043. JSTOR 44017043.
  8. ↑ Smith, Michael G. (2016). "Review of the book Voices of the Soviet Space Program: Cosmonauts, Soldiers, and Engineers Who Took the USSR into Space, by S. Gerovitch". Slavic Review. 75 (2): 516–517. doi:10.5612/slavicreview.75.2.516. JSTOR 10.5612/slavicreview.75.2.516.
  9. ↑ Hollings, Christopher D. (2016). "Review of the book Soviet Space Mythologies: Public Images, Private Memories, and the Making of a Cultural Identity, by S. Gerovitch". The British Journal for the History of Science. 49 (3): 516–517. doi:10.1017/S0007087416000984. JSTOR 26350843.
  10. ↑ Stanoeva, Elitza (2016). "Review of the book Soviet Space Mythologies: Public Images, Private Memories, and the Making of a Cultural Identity, by S. Gerovitch". Europe-Asia Studies. 68 (8): 1445–1446. doi:10.1080/09668136.2016.1230411. JSTOR 26156986.
  11. ↑ Brain, Stephen (2017). "Review of the book Soviet Space Mythologies: Public Images, Private Memories, and the Making of a Cultural Identity, by S. Gerovitch". The Journal of Modern History. 89 (2): 490–492. doi:10.1086/691520. JSTOR 26548384.
  12. ↑ Dufaud, Grégory (2017). "Review of the book Soviet Space Mythologies: Public Images, Private Memories, and the Making of a Cultural Identity, by S. Gerovitch". Cahiers du Monde russe. 58 (4): 742–744. doi:10.4000/monderusse.10186. JSTOR 26615945.
  13. ↑ Logsdon, John M. (1998). "Review of the books Countdown: A History of Space Flight, by T. A. Heppenheimer, and Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon, by J. Harford". Scientific American. 278 (1): 108–110. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0198-108. JSTOR 26057633.
  14. ↑ Gurshtein, Aleksander (1998). "Review of the book Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon, by J. Harford". American Scientist. 86 (1): 84–85. JSTOR 27856945.
  15. ↑ Cohen, Eliot A. (1998). "Review of the book Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon, by J. Harford". Foreign Affairs. 77 (3): 137. JSTOR 20048908.
  16. ↑ Gerovitch, Slava (1998). "Review of the book Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon, by J. Harford". Isis. 89 (2): 365–366. doi:10.1086/384058. JSTOR 237813.
  17. ↑ Tollerton, Harry (1999). "Review of the book Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon, by J. Harford". ASEE Prism. 9 (4): 31–32. JSTOR 24157748.
  18. ↑ Jervis, Robert (1985). "Review of the books ...the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age, by W. A. McDougall, and From H-Bomb to Star Wars: The Politics of Strategic Decision Making, by J. B. Stein". Journal of International Affairs. 39 (1): 191–198. JSTOR 24356371.
  19. ↑ Griffith, Robert (1985). "Review of the book ...the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age, by W. A. McDougall". Science. 230 (4730): 1154. doi:10.1126/science.230.4730.1154. JSTOR 1695506. PMID 17739121.
  20. ↑ Gardner, Lloyd C. (1986). "Review of the book ...the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age, by W. A. McDougall". Reviews in American History. 14 (1): 143–148. doi:10.2307/2702130. JSTOR 2702130.
  21. ↑ Roberts, Darryl L. (1986). "Review of the book ...the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age, by W. A. McDougall". Journal of Peace Research. 23 (3): 291–298. doi:10.1177/002234338602300307. JSTOR 423828.
  22. ↑ Benson, Sumner (1986). "Review of the book ...the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age, by W. A. McDougall". Public Administration Review. 46 (6): 674–675. doi:10.2307/976237. JSTOR 976237.
  23. ↑ Hallion, Richard P. (1987). "Review of the book ...the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age, by W. A. McDougall". Technology and Culture. 28 (1): 130–132. doi:10.2307/3105488. JSTOR 3105488.
  24. ↑ Vaughn, Stephen (1987). "Review of the books ...the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age, by W. A. McDougall, and Star Wars and the State of Our Souls, by P. M. Mische". The Review of Politics. 49 (2): 302–309. doi:10.1017/S003467050003391X. JSTOR 1407516.
  25. ↑ Barry, William P. (2001). "Review of the book Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974, by A. A. Siddiqi". The Journal of Military History. 65 (3): 859–860. doi:10.2307/2677603. JSTOR 2677603.
  26. ↑ Baird, Andrew (2001). "Review of the book Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974, by A. A. Siddiqi". Technology and Culture. 42 (4): 817–818. doi:10.1353/tech.2001.0147. JSTOR 25147835.
  27. ↑ DeVorkin, David (2005). "Review of the book Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974, by A. A. Siddiqi". Isis. 96 (2): 308–309. doi:10.1086/491534. JSTOR 10.1086/491534.
  28. ↑ Jenks, Andrew L. (2010). "Review of the book The Red Rockets' Glare: Spaceflight and the Russian Imagination, 1857–1957, by A. A. Siddiqi". The Russian Review. 69 (4): 713–714. JSTOR 40927460.
  29. ↑ Gerovitch, Slava (2011). "Review of the book The Red Rockets' Glare: Spaceflight and the Russian Imagination, 1857–1957, by A. A. Siddiqi". Isis. 102 (1): 193–194. doi:10.1086/660253. JSTOR 10.1086/660253.
  30. ↑ Balzer, Harley (2011). "Review of the book The Red Rockets' Glare: Spaceflight and the Russian Imagination, 1857–1957, by A. A. Siddiqi". Technology and Culture. 52 (3): 614–617. doi:10.1353/tech.2011.0115. JSTOR 23020650.
  31. ↑ Kojevnikov, Alexei (2011). "Review of the book The Red Rockets' Glare: Spaceflight and the Russian Imagination, 1857–1957, by A. A. Siddiqi". The American Historical Review. 116 (4): 1231–1232. doi:10.1086/ahr.116.4.1231. JSTOR 23308054.
  32. ↑ Siegelbaum, Lewis H. (2011). "Review of the book The Red Rockets' Glare: Spaceflight and the Russian Imagination, 1857–1957, by A. A. Siddiqi". The Journal of Modern History. 83 (4): 965–967. doi:10.1086/662348. JSTOR 10.1086/662348.
  33. ↑ Nelson, Amy (2012). "Review of the book The Red Rockets' Glare: Spaceflight and the Russian Imagination, 1857–1957, by A. A. Siddiqi". Slavic Review. 71 (1): 187–188. doi:10.5612/slavicreview.71.1.0187. JSTOR 10.5612/slavicreview.71.1.0187.
  34. ↑ Wade, Mark. "DS". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 31 March 2009. Retrieved 25 May 2009.
  35. ↑ Wade, Mark. "DS-P1-M". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 5 January 2009. Retrieved 26 May 2009.
  36. ↑ Amy Shira Teitel (13 April 2017). "How Russia Beat the U.S. to the Moon". Daily Beast. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  37. ↑ Zak, Anatoly. "Planetary Spacecraft – Moon Missions". RussianSpaceWeb.com.
  38. ↑ "Comparison of US and Estimated Soviet Expenditures for Space Programs" (PDF). CIA. August 1964. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2017.
  39. ↑ Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 30 November 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth series.
  40. ↑ "Luna-Glob mission lifts off". RussianSpaceWeb. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
  41. ↑ The vision of the Russian Space Agency on the robotic settlements in the Moon. Maxim Litvak, IKI/Roscosmos. 2016.
  42. ↑ "Fundamental Space Studies". Russian Federal Space Agency. Archived from the original on 7 April 2008. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
  43. ↑ "Lavochkin begins phase B work for Luna-Glob 1 orbiter". FlightGlobal. Retrieved 16 October 2008.
  44. ↑ Российский зонд Луна-Глоб отправится исследовать Луну в 2015 году
  45. ↑ "First Russian moon mission delayed". Space Exp. 17 October 2013. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  46. ↑ "Roscosmos: Fundamental space researches". Archived from the original on 15 August 2013. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
  47. ↑ "Future planetary missions". Space Exp. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  48. ↑ Russia will launch Luna spacecraft in 2018
  49. ↑ "Russian Moon missions face three-year delay". Retrieved 7 August 2015.
  50. ↑ "Russia presenting model of Luna-25 Moon exploration spacecraft at Le Bourget Air Show 2015" (in Russian). TASS. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
  51. ↑ Zak, Anatoly (19 August 2023). "Luna-Glob mission lifts off". RussianSpaceWeb. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
  52. ↑ Faris, Nick (22 June 2016). "Russian space agency unveils grandiose plan to permanently base a dozen cosmonauts on the moon". National Post. Retrieved 27 October 2025.
  53. ↑ "В "Роскосмосе" решили переименовать новый космический корабль". Правда.Ру (in Russian). 6 September 2019.
  54. ↑ "Russia to create Angara-A5P rocket for manned space launches by 2024". TASS. 6 November 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
  55. ↑ "New Russian manned spacecraft to be called Federation". TASS. 15 January 2016. Archived from the original on 20 August 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
  56. ↑ "Android in space – first mission of Federation spacecraft in 2021". Newsspaceflight.com. Archived from the original on 19 October 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2018.
  57. ↑ McDowell, Jonathan (17 June 2006). "Issue 565". Jonathan's Space Report. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
  58. ↑ Oberg, James E. (2007). "Review of the book Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries That Ignited the Space Age, by M. Brzezinski". The New Atlantis (18): 81–86. JSTOR 43152922.
  59. ↑ Davis, J. Ron (2008). "Review of the book Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries That Ignited the Space Age, by M. Brzezinski". Air Power History. 55 (4): 59–60. JSTOR 26275062.
  60. ↑ Hewat, A. J. (2002). "Review of the book Sputnik: The Shock of the Century, by P. Dickson". The Wilson Quarterly. 26 (1): 124–125. JSTOR 40260589.
  61. ↑ Wang, Zuoyue (2003). "Review of the book Sputnik: The Shock of the Century, by P. Dickson". Isis. 94 (4): 766–767. doi:10.1086/386485. JSTOR 10.1086/386485.
  62. ↑ Kojevnikov, Alexei (2004). "Review of the books Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge and The Soviet Space Race with Apollo, by A. A. Siddiqi". The Russian Review. 63 (3): 544–546. JSTOR 3664676.
  63. ↑ Libbey, James K. (2004). "Review of the book Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge, by A. A. Siddiqi". Russian History. 31 (3): 363–364. JSTOR 24657646.
  64. ↑ "NASA Solar System Exploration: Venus". 9 November 2017.
  65. ↑ Catchpole, John E. (2008). The International Space Station: Building for the Future. Springer Praxis. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78145-7. ISBN 978-0-387-78144-0.
  66. ↑ Logsdon, John M.; Millar, James R. (2001). "US–Russian cooperation in human spaceflight: Assessing the impacts". Space Policy. 17 (3): 171–178. Bibcode:2001SpPol..17..171L. doi:10.1016/S0265-9646(01)00021-2.
  67. ↑ Thompson, D. J.; Moiseev, A. A. (2024). "Pair Production Detectors for Gamma-Ray Astrophysics". In Bambi, C.; Santangelo, A. (eds.). Handbook of X-ray and Gamma-ray Astrophysics. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-981-19-6960-7_159. ISBN 978-981-19-6960-7.
  68. ↑ Boyarchuk, A. A. (1987). "The ultraviolet telescope on the Astron satellite". Astrophysics and Space Physics Reviews. 5: 225. Bibcode:1987ASPRv...5..225B.
  69. ↑ Page, Lyman A. (1997). "The very first light: The true inside story of the scientific journey back to the dawn of the universe". Physics Today. 50 (6): 80–82. doi:10.1063/1.881783.
  70. ↑ Matravers, David (2010). "Finding the big bang, edited by P. J. E. Peebles, L. A. Page Jr and R. B. Partridge". Contemporary Physics. 51 (5): 460–463. Bibcode:2010ConPh..51..460M. doi:10.1080/00107510903399152.
  71. ↑ Primack, Joel R. (1994). "Wrinkles in time and Through a universe darkly". Physics Today. 47 (9): 90–91. doi:10.1063/1.2808636.

Further reading

  • Under construction
This page is issued from Wikipedia. The text is available under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.