Convoy PQ 18 order of battle

Convoy PQ 18
Part of Arctic Convoys of the Second World War

A depth-charge explosion near Convoy PQ 18
Date2–21 September 1942
Location
Arctic Ocean
75°N 40°E / 75°N 40°E / 75; 40 (Barents Sea)
Result Allied victory
Belligerents
United Kingdom United Kingdom
United States
Soviet Union		  Germany
Commanders and leaders
Robert Burnett Rolf Carls
Strength
40 merchant ships
40–50 escorts (in relays)
2 submarines
1 escort carrier
(12 fighters, 3 reconnaissance aircraft)		 12 U-boats
92 torpedo-bombers
120 bombers
long-range reconnaissance aircraft
Casualties and losses
550+ survivors rescued
13 merchant ships
4 Sea Hurricane fighters		 4 U-boats, 22–44 aircraft
A Sea Hurricane was washed overboard

Convoy PQ 18 (2–21 September 1942) was an Arctic convoy of forty Allied freighters from Scotland and Iceland to Arkhangelsk in the Soviet Union during the Second World War. The convoy departed Loch Ewe, Scotland on 2 September 1942, rendezvoused with more ships and escorts at Iceland and arrived at Arkhangelsk on 21 September. An exceptionally large number of escorts were provided by the Royal Navy in Operation EV, including the first escort carrier to accompany an Arctic convoy. Detailed information on German intentions was provided by the code breakers at Bletchley Park and elsewhere, through Ultra signals decrypts and eavesdropping on Luftwaffe wireless communications. [1] The German B-Dienst code-breakers read some British signals and the Luftwaffe used the lull in convoys after Convoy PQ 17 (27 June – 10 July) to prepare a maximum effort with the Kriegsmarine.[2]

From 12 to 21 September Convoy PQ 18 was attacked by bombers, torpedo-bombers, U-boats and mines, which sank thirteen ships at a cost of forty-four aircraft and four U-boats. The convoy was defended by escort ships and the aircraft of the escort carrier HMS Avenger which used signals intelligence gleaned from Ultra and Luftwaffe wireless frequencies to provide early warning of some air attacks and to attempt evasive routeing of the convoy around concentrations of U-boats. United States Navy Armed Guard and British Naval and Royal Artillery Maritime Regiment gunners were embarked on the freighters to operate anti-aircraft guns and barrage balloons, which made air attacks more difficult and because of inexperience, occasionally wounded men and damaged ships and cargo, with wild shooting.[3][4][5]

The convoy handed over its distant escorts and Avenger to the homeward bound Convoy QP 14 near Archangelsk on 16 September and continued with the close escort and local escorts, riding out a storm in the Northern Dvina estuary and the last attacks by the Luftwaffe, before reaching Archangelsk on 21 September. Several ships ran aground in the storm but all were eventually refloated; unloading the convoy took a month. Because of its losses and the transfer in November of its most effective remaining aircraft to the Mediterranean to oppose Operation Torch, the Luftwaffe effort could never be repeated.[6]

Aftermath

Analysis

In the official history (1956 [1962]) Stephen Roskill called Convoy PQ 18 an Allied success. The convoy operation brought 28 ships safely to their destinations and the Arctic convoy route, which had been suspended since the loss of Convoy PQ 17, was open again.[7] In 2001, Werner Rahn wrote that the Seekriegsleitung (SKL, Naval War Staff) had called the results "dearly bought and unsatisfactory".[8] In 2004, Richard Woodman referred to Convoy PQ 18 as a Pyrrhic victory.[9] The Luftwaffe torpedo-bomber attacks, while costly, had been highly effective and would have inflicted more losses had not the British Headache operators not given early warning of some attacks, which enabled Sea Hurricanes to be scrambled in time.[10] The Germans failed to prevent the convoy reaching Russia and their losses, particularly in trained pilots, were severe, reducing the ability of the Luftwaffe to repeat its anti-convoy operation.[9]

Attacks on Avenger had been defeated and the depth of the escort screen made torpedo attacks on the centre of the convoy extravagantly risky.[9] Coastal Command operations in support of Convoy PQ 18 and the returning Convoy QP 14, involved 111 aircraft from 14 squadrons, which flew 279 sorties and logged 2,290 flying hours, most being taken up by the fights to and from the convoy.[11] In November, Luftflotte 5, the German air command in Norway and Finland, was ordered to transfer its Ju 88 and He 111 torpedo-bombers to the Mediterranean against Operation Torch, a decision which the British received through Ultra intercepts. Only the Heinkel He 115 floatplanes, suitable for torpedo attacks on stragglers and some Junkers Ju 87 dive-bombers remained in Norway, along with a few long-range reconnaissance aircraft to observe for the surface and U-boat forces.[12]

Casualties

Roskill in 1962 and Woodman in 2004 wrote that the Germans managed to sink thirteen merchant ships for a loss of four U-boats and 44 aircraft, 38 of them being torpedo-bombers and six long-range bombers and reconnaissance aircraft.[13] Michael Howard, in 1972, recorded that the Allies lost 38 aircraft from 309, 126 tanks from 448 and 85 of the 106 lorries carried in the merchant ships. Convoy PQ 19 was assembled at Loch Ewe but not dispatched, a net loss to the Allied war effort.[14]

Allied order of battle

Cargo

Convoy, Loch Ewe to Archangel

Force Q

Force Q oilers[19]
ShipYearFlagGRTTypeNotes
RFA Black Ranger1941 Royal Fleet Auxiliary3,417Ranger-class tankerFleet oiler, sailed in convoy
RFA Gray Ranger1941 Royal Fleet Auxiliary3,313Ranger-class tankerFleet oiler, sailed in convoy

Convoy

Convoy formation

Convoy formation, * = ship sunk[22]
column 1 column 2 column 3 column 4 column 5 column 6 column 7 column 8 column 9 column 10
11

Empire Baffin    
21

Komiles    
31

Empire Snow    
41

Empire Beaumont*    
51

Empire Tristram    
61

Temple Arch    
71

Ocean Faith    
81

Dan-Y-Bryn    
91

Empire Stevenson*    
101

Oregonian*    

12

Kentucky*    
22

Petrovski    
32

St Olaf    
42

Patrick Henry    
52

Sahale    
62

Lafayette    
72

Nathaniel Greene    
82

Virginia Dare    
92

Wacosta*    
102

Macbeth*    

13

Charles R McCormick    
23

White Clover    
33

Exford    
43

Esek Hopkins    
53

Empire Morn    
63

Campfire    
73

John Penn*    
83

William Moultrie    
93

Mary Luckenbach*    
103

Stalingrad*    

14

Andre Marti    
24

—    
34

Hollywood    
44

Meanticut    
54

Black Ranger    
64

Schoharie    
74

Goolistan    
84

—    
94

Africander*    
104

Sukhona*    

15

Copeland    
25

—    
35

—    
45

Atheltemplar*    
55

—    
65

Gray Ranger    
75

Tbilisi    
85

—    
95

—    
105

Oliver Ellsworth*    

The Motor Minesweepers MMS 90, MMS 203 and MMS 212 were being delivered to the Soviet Northern Fleet and were to act as rescue ships en route, receiving no position number.[16]

Operation EV

Loch Ewe to Iceland

Local escort[16]
ShipNavyClassDatesNotes
HMS Echo Royal NavyE-class destroyer2–8 September 1942
HMS Campbell Royal NavyScott-class destroyer leader2–8 September 1942Joined Heavy Cover Force
HMS Mackay Royal NavyScott-class destroyer leader2–8 September 1942Joined Heavy Cover Force
HMS Montrose Royal NavyScott-class destroyer leader2–8 September 1942Joined Heavy Cover Force
HMS Walpole Royal NavyW-class destroyer2–8 September 1942
HNoMS Eskdale Royal Norwegian NavyHunt-class destroyer2–8 September 1942
HMS Farndale Royal NavyHunt-class destroyer2–8 September 1942
HMT Arab Royal NavyASW trawler2–8 September 1942To Reykjavík as escort
HMT Duncton Royal NavyASW trawler2–8 September 1942
HMT Hugh Walpole Royal NavyASW trawler2–8 September 1942
HMT King Sol Royal NavyASW trawler2–8 September 1942
HMT Paynter Royal NavyASW trawler2–8 September 1942

Escorts, Iceland to Archangelsk

Close escort[16]
ShipFlagClassDatesNotes
HMS Alynbank Royal NavyAuxiliary anti-aircraft cruiser7–21 September 1942
HMS Ulster Queen Royal NavyAuxiliary anti-aircraft cruiser7–21 September 1942
HMS Achates Royal NavyA-class destroyer7–21 September 1942
HMS Malcolm Royal NavyScott-class destroyer7–21 September 1942Cdr A. B. Russell SOE
HMS Amazon Royal NavyW class destroyer7–21 September 1942
HMS Bergamot Royal NavyFlower-class corvette7–21 September 1942
HMS Bluebell Royal NavyFlower-class corvette7–21 September 1942
HMS Bryony Royal NavyFlower-class corvette7–21 September 1942
HMS Camellia Royal NavyFlower-class corvette7–21 September 1942
HMS Gleaner Royal NavyHalcyon-class minesweeper7–21 September 1942
HMS Harrier Royal NavyHalcyon-class minesweeper7–21 September 1942
HMS Sharpshooter Royal NavyHalcyon-class minesweeper7–21 September 1942
HMT Cape Argona Royal NavyASW trawler7–21 September 1942
HMT Cape Mariato Royal NavyASW trawler7–21 September 1942
HMT Daneman Royal NavyASW trawler7–21 September 1942
HMT St Kenan Royal NavyASW trawler7–21 September 1942

Carrier group

Avenger and escorts[16]
ShipNavyClassDatesNotes
HMS Avenger Royal NavyAvenger-class escort carrier9–17 September 1942
HMS Wheatland Royal NavyHunt-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Wilton Royal NavyHunt-class destroyer9–17 September 1942

Fighting Destroyer Escort

Force A

Fighting Destroyer Escort Force A[23]
ShipFlagClassDatesNotes
HMS Scylla Royal NavyDido-class cruiser9–17 September 1942Flagship Rear Admiral Robert "Bullshit Bob" Burnett
HMS Offa Royal NavyO-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Onslaught Royal NavyO-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Onslow Royal NavyO-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Opportune Royal NavyO-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Ashanti Royal NavyTribal-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Eskimo Royal NavyTribal-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Somali Royal NavyTribal-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Tartar Royal NavyTribal-class destroyer9–17 September 1942

Force B

Fighting Destroyer Escort Force B[19]
ShipFlagClassDatesNotes
HMS Faulknor Royal NavyF-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Fury Royal NavyF-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Impulsive Royal NavyI-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Intrepid Royal NavyI-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Marne Royal NavyM-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Martin Royal NavyM-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Meteor Royal NavyM-class destroyer9–17 September 1942
HMS Milne Royal NavyM-class destroyer9–17 September 1942Captain (D) Ian Campbell

Eastern Local Escort

Eastern local escort from Archangelsk[16]
ShipFlagClassDatesNotes
Gremyashchy Soviet NavyGnevny-class destroyer17–22 September 1942
Valerian Kuybyshev Soviet NavyOrfey-class destroyer17–22 September 1942
Sokrushitelny Soviet NavyGnevny-class destroyer17–22 September 1942
Uritski Soviet NavyOrfey-class destroyer17–22 September 1942
HMS Britomart Royal NavyHalcyon-class minesweeper17–22 September 1942
HMS Halcyon Royal NavyHalcyon-class minesweeper17–22 September 1942
HMS Hazard Royal NavyHalcyon-class minesweeper17–22 September 1942
HMS Salamander Royal NavyHalcyon-class minesweeper17–22 September 1942

Cruiser Covering Force

Cruiser Covering Force[16]
ShipFlagClassDatesNotes
HMS London Royal NavyCounty-class cruiser14–22 September 1942
HMS Norfolk Royal NavyCounty-class cruiser14–22 September 1942Flagship Vice-Admiral Stuart Bonham Carter
HMS Suffolk Royal NavyCounty-class cruiser14–22 September 1942
HMS Bulldog Royal NavyB-class destroyer14–22 September 1942
HMS Venomous Royal NavyW-class destroyer14–22 September 1942

Distant cover

Distant cover (Home Fleet)[16]
ShipFlagClassDatesNotes
HMS Anson Royal NavyKing George V-class battleship11–14 September 1942Flagship, Vice-Admiral Bruce Fraser
HMS Duke of York Royal NavyKing George V-class battleship11–14 September 1942
HMS Jamaica Royal NavyFiji-class cruiser11–14 September 1942
HMS Campbell Royal NavyScott-class destroyer leader11–14 September 1942Joined from local escort group
HMS Mackay Royal NavyScott-class destroyer leader11–14 September 1942Joined from local escort group
HMS Montrose Royal NavyScott-class destroyer leader11–14 September 1942Joined from local escort group
HMS Broke Royal NavyThornycroft type destroyer leader11–14 September 1942
HMS Keppel Royal NavyThornycroft type destroyer leader11–14 September 1942Commander Jack Broome
HMS Bramham Royal NavyHunt-class destroyer11–14 September 1942

Spitzbergen

Spitzbergen fuelling base[24][a]
ShipFlagClassDatesNotes
RFA Blue Ranger Royal NavyRanger-class tanker9–21 September 1942
RFA Oligarch Royal NavyOl-class tanker9–21 September 1942
HMS Windsor Royal NavyW-class destroyer9–21 September 1942
HMS Worcester Royal NavyW-class destroyer9–21 September 1942
HMS Cowdray Royal NavyHunt-class destroyer9–21 September 1942
HMS Oakley Royal NavyHunt-class destroyer9–21 September 1942

Operation Gearbox II

Gearbox II (Spitzbergen supply run)[16][b]
ShipFlagClassDatesNotes
HMS Cumberland Royal NavyCounty-class cruiser14 September 1942
HMS Sheffield Royal NavyTown-class cruiser14 September 1942
HMS Eclipse Royal NavyE-class destroyer14 September 1942

Submarine patrols

Submarine patrols (September–October 1942)[26]
BoatFlagTypePatrolNotes
HMS Shakespeare Royal NavyS-class submarine7–23 SeptemberOff Norwegian coast
HMS Sturgeon Royal NavyS-class submarine2–6 SeptemberPatrol force, returned port
Rubis Free French Naval ForcesSaphir-class submarineMinelayer
HMS Tigris Royal NavyT-class submarine2 September – 1 OctoberPatrol force
HMS Tribune Royal NavyT-class submarine2 September – 1 OctoberPatrol force
HMS Unique Royal NavyU-class submarine7 September – 1 OctoberOff Norwegian coast
HMS Unrivalled Royal NavyU-class submarine7 September – 1 OctoberOff Norwegian coast
HMS Unshaken Royal NavyU-class submarine2 September – 1 OctoberPatrol force
HNoMS Uredd Royal Norwegian NavyU-class submarine2 September – 1 OctoberPatrol force
K-1 Soviet NavySoviet K-class submarinePatrol
K-2 Soviet NavySoviet K-class submarinePatrol
K-21 Soviet NavySoviet K-class submarinePatrol
M-174 Soviet NavySoviet M-class submarinePatrol
Shch-422 Soviet NavyShchuka-class submarinePatrol

RAF

Search and Strike Force (Group-Captain Frank Hopps) based at Polyarny[27]
SqnTypeNo.RoleNotes
1 PRUSpitfire PR Mk IV(D)3Reconnaissance1 written off 9 September, 1 shot down 27 September
144 Squadron RAFHampden16torpedo-bomberAfrikanda, 6 lost in transit 4–5 September 1942
210 Squadron RAFCatalina9Reconnaissance/ASWGrasnaya, no losses
455 Squadron RAAFHampden16torpedo-bomberAfrikanda, 3 lost in transit 4–5 September 1942

Axis order of battle

U-boats

Wolfpack Trägertod (Death to carrier)[28]
NameFlagCommanderClassNotes
U-88 KriegsmarineHeino BohmannType VIIC submarineSunk, Faulknor[29]
U-255 KriegsmarineReinhart RecheType VIIC submarine
U-377 KriegsmarineOtto KöhlerType VIIC submarine
U-378 KriegsmarineHans-Jürgen ZetzscheType VIIC submarine
U-403 KriegsmarineHeinz-Ehlert ClausenType VIIC submarine
U-405 KriegsmarineRolf-Heinrich HopmannType VIIC submarine
U-408 KriegsmarineReinhard von HymmenType VIIC submarineSank Stalingrad[30]
U-435 KriegsmarineSiegfried StrelowType VIIC submarine
U-457 KriegsmarineKarl BrandenburgType VIIC submarineDamaged Atheltemplar, sunk Impulsive[30][31]
U-589 KriegsmarineHans-Joachim HorrerType VIIC submarineSank Oliver Ellsworth, sunk (by) Onslow[30][32]
U-592 KriegsmarineCarl BormType VIIC submarine
U-703 KriegsmarineHeinz BielfeldType VIIC submarine

Surface ships

Sortie, 9 September 1942[33]
NameFlagTypeNotes
Admiral Hipper KriegsmarineAdmiral Hipper-class cruiser
Admiral Scheer KriegsmarineDeutschland-class cruiserFlagship Vice Admiral Kummetz
Köln KriegsmarineKönigsberg-class cruiser
Z4 Richard Beitzen KriegsmarineType 1934 destroyer
Z23 KriegsmarineType 1936A destroyer
Z27 KriegsmarineType 1936A destroyerFlag Kapitän zur See Gottfried Pönitz
Z29 KriegsmarineType 1936A destroyer
Z30 KriegsmarineType 1936A destroyer

Aircraft involved

Luftflotte 5[34][c]
UnitFlagTypeNo.RoleNotes
I./Kampfgeschwader 26 LuftwaffeHeinkel He 111 H642–46Torpedo-bomberBanak
III./Kampfgeschwader 26 LuftwaffeJunkers Ju 88 A1727–35Torpedo-bomberBardufoss
Kampfgeschwader 30 LuftwaffeJunkers Ju 8860Bomber/dive-bomberBanak
1./Kampfgeschwader 40 LuftwaffeFocke-Wulf Fw 200—Long-range reconnaissanceTrondheim
1./Küstenfliegergruppe 406 LuftwaffeHeinkel He 11515torpedo-bomberSørreisa, Billefjord, Tromsø
1./Küstenfliegergruppe 906 LuftwaffeBlohm & Voss BV 138—Weather reconnaissanceSørreisa, Billefjord, Tromsø
I(F)/22, I(F)/124 LuftwaffeJunkers Ju 88—ReconnaissanceBanak, Bardufoss, Kirkenes[36]

Luftflotte 5

Luftflotte 5, order of battle, 1 June 1942[37]
Command Units
Luftflotte 5 HQ Colonel-General Hans-Jürgen Stumpff
OsloWettererkundungsstaffel 5 (Weather reconnaissance squadron)
Fliegerführer Nord (Ost)[d] Colonel Alexander Holle
KirkenesI. und II./Kampfgeschwader 30; II. and 13./Jagdgeschwader 5; I./Sturzkampfgeschwader 5 (Dive-Bomber Wing); 3./Kampfgeschwader 26; 1./Seeaufklärungsgruppe 125 (Maritime Reconnaissance Wing); 1./Fernaufklärungsgruppe 22; 1./Fernaufklärungsgruppe 124 (Long-Range Reconnaissance Wing)
Fliegerführer Nord (West)[e]
—I./Kampfgeschwader 26; I./Kampfgeschwader 40; 2./Küstenfliegergruppe 906 (Coastal Reconnaissance Wing); Bordfliegerstaffel Tirpitz; 1./Fernaufklärungsgruppe 120
Fliegerführer Lofoten[f] Colonel Ernst-August Roth
BardufossIII./Kampfgeschwader 30; III./Jagdgeschwader 5; 2./Kampfgeschwader 26; 4./Sturzkampfgeschwader 5; Kette 1./Fernaufklärungsgruppe 124
Jagdfliegerführer Norwegen[g]
—I./Jagdgeschwader 5; Jagdgruppe Drontheim (Fighter Wing)
Seenotdienstführer Norwegen[h]
—Seenotbereichskommando VIII (Maritime Rescue Area Command); Seenotbereichskommando IX

Notes

  1. ↑ Spelled as it was originally named.[25]
  2. ↑ Spelled as it was originally named.[25]
  3. ↑ Woodman (2004) has 42 Heinkel and 35 Ju 88 torpedo-bombers.[35]
  4. ↑ Air Commander North (East)
  5. ↑ Air Commander North (West)
  6. ↑ Air Commander Lofotens
  7. ↑ Fighter Commander Norway
  8. ↑ Maritime Rescue Service Leader Norway

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Hinsley 1994, pp. 141, 145–146.
  2. ↑ Kahn 1973, pp. 238–241; Budiansky 2000, pp. 250, 289.
  3. ↑ Woodman 2004, pp. 264–272.
  4. ↑ Roskill 1962, pp. 282–283.
  5. ↑ Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 196.
  6. ↑ Woodman 2004, pp. 273–282.
  7. ↑ Roskill 1962, p. 287.
  8. ↑ Rahn 2001, p. 456.
  9. 1 2 3 Woodman 2004, p. 283.
  10. ↑ Hinsley 1994, p. 156.
  11. ↑ Richards & Saunders 1975, p. 85.
  12. ↑ PRO 2001, p. 115.
  13. ↑ Woodman 2004, p. 280; Roskill 1962, p. 287.
  14. ↑ Howard 1972, p. 42.
  15. ↑ Ruegg & Hague 1993, p. 6.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ruegg & Hague 1993, p. 43.
  17. ↑ Smith 1975, p. 32.
  18. 1 2 3 Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 193.
  19. 1 2 Woodman 2004, p. 261.
  20. 1 2 Ruegg & Hague 1993, p. 42.
  21. ↑ Smith 1975, p. 37.
  22. ↑ Ruegg & Hague 1993, p. 43; Hague 2000, pp. 190–191.
  23. ↑ Woodman 2004, pp. 260–261.
  24. ↑ Roskill 1962, pp. 280–283; Woodman 2004, pp. 265, 267.
  25. 1 2 Smith 1975, p. 213.
  26. ↑ Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, pp. 193–194.
  27. ↑ Schofield & Nesbit 1987, p. 195; Richards & Saunders 1975, pp. 81–82; Smith 1977, p. 225.
  28. ↑ Smith 1977, pp. 231–232; Blair 2000, pp. 20–21, 250, 268.
  29. ↑ Smith 1975, p. 50.
  30. 1 2 3 Blair 2000, p. 20.
  31. ↑ Smith 1975, pp. 150–151.
  32. ↑ Smith 1975, pp. 132–134.
  33. ↑ Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 195.
  34. ↑ Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 196; Thiele 2004, pp. 42–43; Woodman 2004, p. 262.
  35. ↑ Woodman 2004, p. 262.
  36. ↑ Smith 1977, p. 225.
  37. ↑ Niehorster 2015.

References

  • Blair, Clay (2000) [1998]. Hitler's U-Boat War: The Hunted 1942–1945. Vol. II (UK pbk. ed.). Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35261-6.
  • Boog, H.; Rahn, W.; Stumpf, R.; Wegner, B. (2001) [1990]. Der globale Krieg: Die Ausweitung zum Weltkrieg und der Wechsel zur Initiative 1941 bis 1943 [Widening of the Conflict into a World War and the Shift of the Initiative 1941–1943]. Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg (Germany and the Second World War). Vol. VI. Translated by Osers, Ewald; Brownjohn, John; Crampton, Patricia; Willmot, Louise (eng. trans. Cambridge University Press, London ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt for the Militärgeschichtlichen Forschungsamt. ISBN 0-19-822888-0.
    • Rahn, W. "PART III The War at Sea in the Atlantic and in the Arctic Ocean IV. Operations on the Northern Flank of Europe". In Boog et al. (2001).
  • Budiansky, S. (2000). Battle of Wits: The Complete Story of Codebreaking in World War II. New York: The Free Press (Simon & Schuster). ISBN 0-684-85932-7 – via Archive Foundation.
  • Hague, Arnold (2000). The Allied Convoy System 1939–1945: Its Organisation, Defence and Operation. London: Chatham. ISBN 978-1-55125-033-5.
  • Hinsley, F. H. (1994) [1993]. British Intelligence in the Second World War: Its Influence on Strategy and Operations. History of the Second World War (2nd rev. abr. ed.). London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-11-630961-7.
  • Howard, M. (1972). Grand Strategy: August 1942 – September 1943. History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series. Vol. IV. London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-11-630075-1.
  • Kahn, D. (1973) [1967]. The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing (10th abr. Signet, Chicago ed.). New York: Macmillan. LCCN 63-16109. OCLC 78083316.
  • Niehorster, Leo (5 May 2015). "German Air Force, Order of Battle, 5th Air Fleet, 1 June 1942". www.niehorster.org. Retrieved 10 November 2024.
  • Richards, Denis; Saunders, H. St G. (1975) [1954]. Royal Air Force 1939–1945: The Fight Avails. History of the Second World War, Military Series. Vol. II (pbk. ed.). London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-11-771593-6 – via Hyperwar.
  • Rohwer, Jürgen; Hümmelchen, Gerhard (2005) [1972]. Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two (3rd rev. ed.). London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176-257-7.
  • Roskill, S. W. (1962) [1956]. The Period of Balance. History of the Second World War: The War at Sea 1939–1945. Vol. II (3rd impr. ed.). London: HMSO. OCLC 174453986 – via Hyperwar.
  • Ruegg, R.; Hague, A. (1993) [1992]. Convoys to Russia: Allied Convoys and Naval Surface Operations in Arctic Waters 1941–1945 (2nd rev. enl. ed.). Kendal: World Ship Society. ISBN 0-905617-66-5.
  • Schofield, Ernest; Nesbit, Roy Conyers (1987). Arctic Airmen: The RAF in Spitsbergen and North Russia 1942. London: W. Kimber. ISBN 978-0-7183-0660-1.
  • Smith, Peter (1975). Convoy PQ18: Arctic Victory. London: William Kimber. ISBN 978-0-7183-0074-6.
  • Smith, Peter (1977) [1975]. Convoy PQ18: Arctic Victory. London: New English Library. ISBN 978-0-7183-0074-6.
  • The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force (repr. Public Record Office War Histories ed.). Richmond, Surrey: Air Ministry. 2001 [1948]. ISBN 978-1-903365-30-4. Air 41/10.
  • Thiele, Harold (2004). Luftwaffe Aerial Torpedo Aircraft and Operations in World War II. Crowborough: Hikoki. ISBN 978-1-90-210942-8.
  • Woodman, Richard (2004) [1994]. Arctic Convoys 1941–1945. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-5752-1.

Further reading

  • Claasen, A. R. A. (2001). Hitler's Northern War: The Luftwaffe's Ill-fated Campaign, 1940–1945. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1050-2.
  • Jordan, Roger W. (2006) [1999]. The World's Merchant Fleets 1939: The Particulars and Wartime Fates of 6,000 Ships (2nd ed.). London: Chatham/Lionel Leventhal. ISBN 978-1-86176-293-1.
  • Kington, J. A.; Selinger, F. (2006). Wekusta: Luftwaffe Meteorological Reconnaissance Units & Operations 1938–1945. Ottringham: Flight Recorder Publications. ISBN 978-0-9545605-8-4.
  • Llewellyn-Jones, Malcolm, ed. (2014) [2007]. The Royal Navy and the Arctic Convoys: A Naval Staff History. Naval Staff Histories. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-86177-9.
This page is issued from Wikipedia. The text is available under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.