History of the United States Senate

The United States Senate building, built in 1859.[1] Photographed in 2013.
Historical graph of party control of the Senate and House, as well as the Presidency[2]

The United States Senate is the upper legislative chamber of the United States Congress, the federal legislature of the United States government. It sits in the North Wing of the United States Capitol.

The Senate originates from the Constitutional Convention of 1787. In the Virginia Plan, delegate James Madison proposed a bicameral legislature with two chambers, each proportional to population. In the New Jersey Plan, delegate William Paterson proposed a unicameral legislature with one chamber, with one vote per state. The Senate emerged from the Connecticut Compromise, which ended in a closely contested 5–4 vote that granted smaller states equal representation in the Senate.[3]

The Founders who supported the Senate conceived of it as a check on the House of Representatives, where states with more voters receive more seats. By contrast, the Senate grants each state two senators, regardless of size or population. The Founders who opposed the Senate saw it as a political concession to small states with no basis in democratic principles.[4][5]

Since its creation, reformers have proposed reforms to the Senate or its outright abolition. Following the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913, senators began to be elected by direct popular vote. Previously, senators were chosen by state legislatures.[6]

1789–1865

The exterior view of Federal Hall, designated the site of the federal government in 1788

The United States Congress, established by the U.S. Constitution, met at New York City's Federal Hall on March 4, 1789.[7] Initially, the Senate met behind closed doors, with no gallery for the public or journalists to spectate. It utilized the Senate Journal for communications with the press and public instead.[8] The early Senate met in secret, similar to the Continental Congress.[9] This practice drew criticism, as the House of Representatives met in public, and a growing number of states became concerned that the Senate should be held accountable in a similar way.[10][11][12] In 1794, a resolution passed to open the Senate chamber. In December 1795, the press and public were able to listen to a debate.[13]

The role of the vice president, as the president of the Senate, was an issue within the early Senate. The first vice president, John Adams, was allowed to craft legislation and participate in debates, but these rights were quickly removed.[14] Although the Founding Fathers intended the Senate to be the slower and more deliberate legislative body, the House spent more time considering legislation in the early years of the Republic.[15] For instance, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton's Bank of the United States and Assumption Bill passed the Senate with little difficulty but faced significant opposition and lengthy debate in the House.[16]

Thomas Jefferson began the vice-presidential tradition of only attending Senate sessions on special occasions. Despite his frequent absences, Jefferson impacted the Senate's parliamentary procedures with his 1801 Manual of Parliamentary Practice for the Use of the Senate of the United States, which is still influential today.[17][18]

In 1804, the House of Representatives, reflecting public and presidential sentiment against Federalist judges, voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase.[19] However, the Senate voted to acquit him and established a precedent that impeachment should not be used for political disagreement.[20] As vice president, Aaron Burr presided over the impeachment trial. After the trial, Burr said:[21]

"This House is a sanctuary; a citadel of law, of order, and of liberty; and it is here–in this exalted refuge; here if anywhere, will resistance be made to the storms of political frenzy and the silent arts of corruption."[22]

In the following decades, the Senate played an increasingly visible role in national political debates. Senators John C. Calhoun, Daniel Webster, Thomas Hart Benton, Stephen A. Douglas, and Henry Clay played roles in national policy discussions.[23][24][25][26][27]

The Webster–Hayne debate of January 1830, pitting the federal government's interests against South Carolina due to controversial tariffs like the Tariff of 1828, is widely regarded as a significant moment in Senate history. The debate pitted the sectional interests between New England and the South, as Daniel Webster advocated for the federation and unity between states, while Robert Y. Hayne argued on behalf of states' rights and protection from federal overreach.[28]

Move to the Capitol Building

On July 4, 1851, construction of the new Senate Chamber began in the United States Capitol.[29] It was designed by Thomas Ustick Walter and Montgomery C. Meigs.[30] Walter designed the chamber without windows to prevent any noises or drafts that might affect the senators as they engaged in debate.[30][31] The Senate Chamber was much larger than the previous Federal Hall, which was only 40 feet long and 30 feet wide.[32][33] The chamber opened for congressional use in 1859.

Slavery and sectional conflict

In the decades that leading up to the American Civil War, slavery was a central issue shaping debate in the United States Senate. Unlike the House of Representatives, where population differences gave the Northern free states increasing influence, the Senate's equal representation of states allowed Southern slave states to retain substantial power. This structure made the chamber a focal point for sectional tension and placed ongoing pressure on lawmakers to maintain a balance between free and slave states.[34]

Debate over Compromise of 1850 in the Old Senate Chamber. Digitally restored.

To preserve this balance, Congress adopted a series of legislative compromises. The Missouri Compromise of 1820, brokered by Henry Clay, admitted Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state, temporarily stabilizing sectional equilibrium. However, as the nation expanded westward, the maintaining parity became increasingly difficult.[35] The Compromise of 1850, negotiated by Clay and Stephen A. Douglas, addressed the status of territories acquired from Mexico and included a strengthened Fugitive Slave Law, further intensifying national debate.[36]

In 1856, Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts was assaulted nearly to death on the Senate floor by Representative Preston Brooks of South Carolina following Sumner's speech criticizing slavery and its supporters.[37] He resigned shortly after, but during the special election following his resignation, he was re-elected to the House.

According to Article I, Section 5 of the U.S. Constitution, Congress retains the right to "punish its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member." The Senate has only expelled 15 members since 1789 — fourteen being expelled during the Civil War for supporting the Confederacy.[38]

1865–1913s

In the decades following the Civil War, the Senate addressed major national questions such as Reconstruction and monetary policy. During the Third Party System, state legislatures—dominated by strong party organizations—determined Senate elections, ensuring that party leaders and influential figures could secure seats.[39] This era also coincided with rapid industrial expansion when entrepreneurs and financiers gained prestige comparable to that of military leaders, and several entered the Senate.[40]

In 1870, Hiram Revels of Mississippi became the first African American senator. Chosen by state Republicans under pressure from Black legislators, Revels filled a short unexpired term and was seated after a 48–8 Senate vote following objections from some members. Revels used his brief tenure to advocate for civil rights and protest racial segregation.[41] Four years later, Mississippi's legislature appointed Blanche Bruce, who served a full term from 1875 to 1881 and presided over the Senate in 1879. He was the last African American senator until 1967.[40]

Although they only held the majority for only two years from 1881 to 1913, the Democratic Party made major strides in pioneering formal leadership positions by establishing a party leader or floor leader. The majority and minority leaders communicated their party's positions, coordinated their respective legislative strategies, and played a major role in the day-to-day operations of floor procedure.[42]

Between 1871 and 1898, the Senate rejected or stalled numerous treaties, including reciprocal trade agreements and proposals to annex the Dominican Republic and the Danish West Indies. It also blocked an arbitration treaty with Britain. In 1898, the Senate came close to rejecting the treaty that ended the Spanish American War.[43]

By the turn of the century, Senate leadership was dominated by a small group of Republicans, notably Nelson Aldrich of Rhode Island, Orville Platt of Connecticut, John Coit Spooner of Wisconsin, William Boyd Allison of Iowa, and national party figure Mark Hanna of Ohio. Aldrich in particular shaped federal tax and tariff policy and played a central role in establishing the Federal Reserve System. Among Democrats, Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland was elected caucus chairman to promote party unity, energize senators, and counter factionalism.[44]

In 1907, Charles Curtis of Kansas became the first Native American senator. A registered member of the Kaw Nation with Osage and Potawatomi heritage, Curtis chaired the Indian Affairs Committee. He promoted assimilationist policies and sponsored legislation that limited tribal sovereignty, reflecting the federal government's prevailing approach to Native American affairs at the time.[45]

1913–1945

From 1913 to 1945, the United States Senate underwent numerous political reforms. During this period, it adopted procedural reforms, clearer rules for debate, and stronger leadership structures.[46]

Democratization and representation

In 1913, the Seventeenth Amendment required senators to be elected directly by voters instead of being chosen by state legislatures.[47] This reform aimed to make senators directly accountable to the electorate.

The period also brought early changes in Senate representation. On November 21, 1922, Rebecca Latimer Felton of Georgia became the first woman to serve in the Senate, although her appointment lasted only one day.[48] In 1928, Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo of New Mexico became the first Latino senator, filling a three-month unexpired term.[40] In 1932, Hattie Caraway of Arkansas became the first woman elected to the Senate. Initially appointed following her husband's death, she later won re-election twice in her own right.[49] In 1935, Dennis Chávez of New Mexico became the first Latino elected to a full Senate term.[50]

Regulation of debate and obstruction

The Senate also revised the way it handled extended debate. Senators had long been able to delay legislation through the filibuster, but it was used infrequently before the twentieth century.[51]

During World War I, William Jennings Bryan and 20 other senators blocked a bill that would have allowed U.S. merchant ships to be armed. In response, the Senate adopted the cloture rule in 1917, allowing debate to end with a two-thirds vote.[52] President Woodrow Wilson criticized the senators involved, calling them a “group of willful men.”[52]

Leadership and agenda control

Leadership within the Senate became more structured during this period. The position of Senate Majority Leader was created, replacing an informal system in which influence was exercised mainly by committee chairs or senior senators, such as Daniel Webster or Nelson Aldrich.[53]

At first, the role carried limited authority beyond priority to speak, and divisions within the Democratic Party—especially between northern liberals and southern conservatives—further limited its effectiveness.[54]

From 1923 to 1937, Joseph T. Robinson of Arkansas served as Democratic leader of the Senate and played a key role in guiding legislation during both Republican administrations and the New Deal. He supported Presidents Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover on measures such as the Muscle Shoals project and the Hoover Tariff and later helped advance much of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal legislation. His influence was widely noted; humorist Will Rogers joked, “Congress doesn't pass legislation any more, they just wave at the bills as they go by.”[53][55]

In 1937, the Senate strengthened the role of the majority leader by adopting the rule of first recognition, which gave the leader priority when seeking recognition to speak. This change gave Senate leaders greater control over the legislative agenda.[56]

Institutional independence

Throughout this period, the Senate continued to act independently of the executive branch. Even as presidential power expanded during the New Deal era, senators asserted their authority to oppose proposals they believed exceeded constitutional or fiscal limits.[57]

In 1937, the Senate rejected President Franklin D. Roosevelt's proposal to expand the Supreme Court, commonly known as the “court-packing” plan. The decision demonstrated the chamber's willingness to resist presidential initiatives, even during a period of strong executive leadership.[58]

The Senate also called for reduced federal deficits that same year, further signaling its readiness to challenge presidential priorities it disagreed with.[59]

1945–present

After World War II ended in 1945, the Senate focused heavily on Cold War foreign policy. Between 1945 and 1953, it ratified U.S. participation in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, and approved funding for the Truman Doctrine (1947) and Marshall Plan (1948), aimed at containing Soviet influence and aiding European recovery.[60]

In the early 1950s the Senate was shaken by anti-communist investigations led by Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin. McCarthy claimed that communists had infiltrated the federal government and other influential institutions. Over time, many of his accusations were found to lack evidence, and his investigations expanded to include targets such as the U.S. Army, universities, Hollywood, and business leaders. The Senate censured McCarthy in December 1954 by a 67–22 vote, effectively ending his influence due to the fact that he could no longer spread these accusations.[61]

Senator Lyndon B. Johnson rose to power as Senate Majority Leader at the same time and used newly gained, significant authority over committee assignments to move legislation forward. Procedural changes included lowering the cloture threshold for ending filibusters from two-thirds to three-fifths in 1975.[62] Johnson later drew on this experience to help pass major civil rights laws, first as Senate leader and later as president, overcoming resistance that had stalled similar efforts for decades.[63][64]

The Democratic Party held the majority of seats from the 84th Congress to the 96th Congress (1955–1981), the longest continuous majority in United States Senate history, making an important mark on the United States.[65]

Diversity in the Senate

Representation in the U.S. Senate expanded slowly over the second half of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, reflecting changes in both Senate membership and institutional roles. In 1959, Senator Hiram Fong of Hawaii became the first Asian American elected to the Senate, where he supported civil rights legislation and reforms aimed at expanding voting access for Asian Americans. This raised his support from the minority, however it cost him some support in those who did not support the legislation.[40]

In 1966, Senator Edward W. Brooke of Massachusetts became the first African American to be popularly elected to the Senate since the Reconstruction era. A liberal Republican, he served two terms and focused on civil rights and social reform.[66] In 1992, Senator Carol Moseley Braun of Illinois became the first African American woman elected to the Senate. During her single term, she emphasized education reform and gun control.[67]

Changes in representation were also reflected in Senate roles beyond elected office. In 1971, Paulette Desell became the first female Senate page, following her appointment by Senator Jacob K. Javits.[40] In 2009, Kathie Alvarez became the first woman to serve as a legislative clerk in the Senate.[68]

In the 21st century, further milestones marked broader diversity within the chamber. In 2012, Senator Tammy Baldwin was elected as the first openly gay U.S. Senator.[69] The following year, Senator Mazie Hirono became the first Asian American woman elected to the Senate. In 2017, Senator Catherine Cortez Masto became the first Latina and Mexican American woman to serve in the Senate.[70]

In 2025, Senator Lisa Blunt Rochester and Senator Angela Alsobrooks were the first African American women to serve simultaneously in the Senate. That same year, Senator Andy Kim was elected as New Jersey’s first Asian American senator and the first Korean American to serve in the chamber.[71][72]

Senators who have served as President

17 US Presidents have been members of the Senate prior to taking office as the President of the United States. These were:[73]

Name Years as Senator Years as President State
James Monroe 1790–1794 1817–1825 VA
John Quincy Adams 1803–1808 1825–1829 MA
Andrew Jackson 1797–1798; 1823–1825 1829–1837 TN
Martin Van Buren 1821–1828 1837–1841 NY
William Henry Harrison 1825–1828 1841 OH
John Tyler 1827–1836 1841–1845 VA
Franklin Pierce 1837–1842 1853–1857 NH
James Buchanan 1834–1845 1857–1861 PA
Andrew Johnson 1857–1862, 1875 1865–1869 TN
Benjamin Harrison 1881–1887 1889–1893 IN
Warren G. Harding 1915–1921 1921–1923 OH
Harry S. Truman 1935–1945 1945–1953 MO
John F. Kennedy 1953–1960 1961–1963 MA
Lyndon B. Johnson 1949–1961 1963–1969 TX
Richard M. Nixon 1950–1953 1969–1974 CA
Barack Obama 2005–2008 2009–2017 IL
Joe Biden 1973–2009 2021–2025 DE

See also

External videos
video icon Booknotes interview with Donald Ritchie on Press Gallery, July 7, 1991, C-SPAN

Bibliography

Notes

  1. ↑ "U.S. Senate: About the Senate Chamber | Historical Overview". United States Senate. Retrieved March 25, 2026.
  2. ↑ "A Visual Guide".
  3. ↑ Brown, Robert E. (February 1, 1970). "The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787. By Gordon S. Wood. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American History and Culture. 1969. Pp. xiv, 653. $15.00.)". The American Historical Review. 75 (3): 919–920. doi:10.1086/ahr/75.3.919. ISSN 1937-5239.
  4. ↑ Rakove, Jack N. (1996). Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 57–93. ISBN 978-0-394-57858-3.
  5. ↑ Neuborne, Burt (2014). "One-State/Two-Votes: Do Supermajority Senate Voting Rules Violate the Article V Guaranty of Equal State Suffrage" (PDF). Stanford Journal of Civil Rights & Civil Liberties. 10 (10): 27–54.
  6. ↑ "United States Senate | Definition, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. September 30, 2025. Retrieved September 30, 2025.
  7. ↑ "Treasures of Congress: The First Congress". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved October 26, 2023.
  8. ↑ Kratz, Jessie. "Opening the Doors to Debate". Retrieved May 11, 2026.
  9. ↑ Caveney, Brian J. (1999). "More Sunshine in the Mountain State: The 1999 Amendments to the West Virginia Open Governmental Proceedings Act and Open Hospital Proceedings Act". West Virginia Law Review. 102 (1): 133 – via West Virginia University Research Repository.
  10. ↑ Kratz, Jessie (April 29, 2015). "Opening the Doors to Debate". Pieces of History. Retrieved March 1, 2026.
  11. ↑ "U.S. Senate: Chamber Access". www.senate.gov. Retrieved January 31, 2026.
  12. ↑ Kratz, Jessie (April 29, 2015). "Opening the Doors to Debate". Pieces of History. Retrieved January 31, 2026.
  13. ↑ Kratz, Jessie. "Opening the Doors to Debate". Retrieved May 11, 2026.
  14. ↑ Albert, Richard (2005). "The Evolving Vice Presidency". Temple Law Review. 78 (4): 815 – via Boston College Law School Faculty Papers.
  15. ↑ "Senate Created". Senate.gov. Retrieved June 2, 2026.
  16. ↑ "Alexander Hamilton, an excerpt from Financial Founding Fathers: The Men Who Made America Rich by Robert E. Wright and David J. Cowen". press.uchicago.edu. Retrieved August 24, 2025.
  17. ↑ "About the Vice President | Historical Overview". www.senate.gov. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  18. ↑ "Idea of the Senate". Senate.gov. Retrieved June 2, 2026.
  19. ↑ "U.S. Senate: Impeachment Trial of Justice Samuel Chase, 1804-05". www.senate.gov. Retrieved June 2, 2026.
  20. ↑ "The impeachment of Samuel Chase". www.bryancountynews.com. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  21. ↑ Lepore, Jill (October 21, 2019). "The Invention—and Reinvention—of Impeachment". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  22. ↑ Caro: Master of the Senate, 2002, p. 14.
  23. ↑ "Senator John C. Calhoun's Speech to the Senate, March 4, 1850 | U.S. Capitol - Visitor Center". www.visitthecapitol.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  24. ↑ "U.S. Senate: Classic Senate Speeches". www.senate.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  25. ↑ "U.S. Senate: Classic Senate Speeches". www.senate.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  26. ↑ "U.S. Senate: April 25, 1861: Senator Stephen Douglas Speaks Before the Illinois Legislature". www.senate.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  27. ↑ "U.S. Senate: Classic Senate Speeches". www.senate.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  28. ↑ "The Webster-Hayne Debates". Teaching American History. Retrieved August 24, 2025.
  29. ↑ Chávez, Dennis; Byrd, Harry; Green, Theodore (April 2, 1951). History of United States Senate Roof and Chamber Improvements and Related Historical Data (PDF) (Report). Retrieved March 25, 2026.
  30. 1 2 "About the Senate Chamber | Historical Overview". www.senate.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  31. ↑ "Senate Chamber | Architect of the Capitol". Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved March 26, 2026.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  32. ↑ "U.S. Senate: Federal Hall, New York City, 1789–1790". www.senate.gov. Retrieved May 17, 2026.
  33. ↑ "U.S. Senate: About the Senate Chamber". www.senate.gov. Retrieved May 17, 2026.
  34. ↑ "13. The Sectional Crisis | THE AMERICAN YAWP". June 7, 2013. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  35. ↑ "Missouri Compromise (1820)". National Archives. June 16, 2021. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  36. ↑ "The Compromise of 1850 as Introduced by Senator Henry Clay, January 29, 1850 | U.S. Capitol - Visitor Center". www.visitthecapitol.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  37. ↑ "U.S. Senate: The Caning of Senator Charles Sumner". www.senate.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  38. ↑ "U.S. Senate: About Expulsion". www.senate.gov. Retrieved April 28, 2026.
  39. ↑ Perry, Carol (January 11, 2013). "University Press Scholarship Online20135University Press Scholarship Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press Last visited July 2012. Contact publisher for pricing information URL: www.universitypressscholarship.com". Reference Reviews. 27 (1): 13–14. doi:10.1108/09504121311290327. ISSN 0950-4125.
  40. 1 2 3 4 5 Ref, Cross (2019), "Book Chapter Submission Validation Test", Book Title Submission Validation Test, Somewhere, MA: The Test Institution, pp. 87–107, retrieved September 30, 2025
  41. ↑ Barreyre, Nicolas (September 2020). "Eric Foner Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 New York, Harper & Row, 1988, <scp>xxx</scp>-690 p.". Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales. 75 (3–4): 814–817. doi:10.1017/ahss.2021.19. ISSN 0395-2649.
  42. ↑ "U.S. Senate: About Parties and Leadership | Majority and Minority Leaders". www.senate.gov. Retrieved April 28, 2026.
  43. ↑ Levin, N. Gordon; Perkins, Bradford (December 1968). "The Great Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1895-1914". The Journal of American History. 55 (3): 669. doi:10.2307/1891065. ISSN 0021-8723. JSTOR 1891065.
  44. ↑ "U.S. Senate: Senate Democratic Caucus Organized". www.senate.gov. Retrieved April 20, 2026.
  45. ↑ "Article 16, Treaty of the Maumee Rapids, 1817, from Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties". doi.org. doi:10.3998/mpub.14435914.cmp.7. Retrieved September 30, 2025.
  46. ↑ "Timeline 1913-1945 | U.S. Capitol - Visitor Center". www.visitthecapitol.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  47. ↑ Sherry, Michael (December 2010). "Julian E. Zelizer . Arsenal of Democracy: The Politics of National Security—From World War II to the War on Terrorism . New York : Basic Books . 2010 . Pp. v, 583. $35.00". The American Historical Review. 115 (5): 1496–1497. doi:10.1086/ahr.115.5.1496. ISSN 0002-8762.
  48. ↑ "CBS News/New York Times Monthly Poll, November 1990". ICPSR Data Holdings. May 12, 1992. doi:10.3886/icpsr09617.v2. Retrieved September 30, 2025.
  49. ↑ Proops, Ian (1997). "The Early Wittgenstein on Logical Assertion". Philosophical Topics. 25 (2): 121–144. doi:10.5840/philtopics19972524. ISSN 0276-2080.
  50. ↑ Huginnie, A. Yvette; Gutiérrez, David G. (July 1, 2006). "The Columbia History of Latinos in the United States since 1960". The Western Historical Quarterly. 37 (2): 215. doi:10.2307/25443333. ISSN 0043-3810. JSTOR 25443333.
  51. ↑ Donnelly, Thomas C. (1932). "Freedom of Speech in the Senate: A Restatement of the Case in the Light of Contemporary Events". Social Science. 7 (3): 225–236. ISSN 0037-7848.
  52. 1 2 Koger, Gregory (2010). Filibustering. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226449661.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-226-44965-4.
  53. 1 2 Cohen, Ronald D. (February 2008). "LeRoy Ashby. With Amusement For All: A History of American Popular Culture Since 1830. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2006. 688 pp. Cloth $39.95". History of Education Quarterly. 48 (1): 133–136. doi:10.1111/j.1748-5959.2008.00128.x. ISSN 0018-2680.
  54. ↑ "U.S. Senate: About Parties and Leadership | Majority and Minority Leaders". www.senate.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  55. ↑ "Congressional Commentator, Will Rogers | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives". history.house.gov. Retrieved March 20, 2026.
  56. ↑ Uslaner, Eric M. (September 1990). "The Transformation of the U.S. Senate. By Barbara Sinclair. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. 233p. $28.50. - Call to Order: Floor Politics in the House and Senate. By Steven S. Smith. Washington: Brookings Institution, 1989. 269p. $31.95 cloth, $11.95 paper". American Political Science Review. 84 (3): 1016–1017. doi:10.2307/1962827. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1962827.
  57. ↑ "U.S. Senate: The Idea of the Senate". www.senate.gov. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  58. ↑ Association, Texas State Historical. "The Court-Packing Plan of 1937: A Turning Point in American Politics". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  59. ↑ Staff, N. P. R. (July 16, 2011). "1937: When U.S. Austerity Turned To Disaster". NPR. Retrieved March 3, 2026.
  60. ↑ "Treaties". U.S. Senate. Retrieved February 20, 2026.
  61. ↑ Oshinsky, David M. (1983). A Conspiracy So Immense: The World of Joe McCarthy. Free Press. ISBN 978-0029234105.
  62. ↑ "Filibusters and Cloture". U.S. Senate. Retrieved February 20, 2026.
  63. ↑ de Gier, Erik (June 1, 2014). "De Amerikaanse ambitie van Lyndon Johnson - Robert Caro, The years of Lyndon Johnson. The passage of power (Alfred A. Knopf; New York 2012) 736 p., ill., €34,99 ISBN 9780679405078". Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis. 127 (2): 364–366. doi:10.5117/tvgesch2014.2.gier. ISSN 0040-7518.
  64. ↑ Caro, Robert (2002). Master of the Senate. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0394720951.
  65. ↑ "U.S. Senate: Party Division". www.senate.gov. Retrieved January 23, 2026.
  66. ↑ Scott, H.M. (June 1, 1991). "Book Reviews : The New Cambridge Modern History. Volume Two, 2nd edition: The Reformation, 1520-1559. Edited by G. R. Elton. Cambridge University Press. 1990. x + 741 pp. 35.00". German History. 9 (2): 235. doi:10.1177/026635549100900212 (inactive January 30, 2026). ISSN 0266-3554.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2026 (link)
  67. ↑ Uslaner, Eric M. (December 1990). "The Transformation of the U.S. Senate. By Barbara Sinclair. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. 233p. $28.50. - Call to Order: Floor Politics in the House and Senate. By Steven S. Smith. Washington: Brookings Institution, 1989. 269p. $31.95 cloth, $11.95 paper". American Political Science Review. 84 (3): 1016–1017. doi:10.2307/1962827. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1962827.
  68. ↑ "ABC News/Washington Post Poll, June 2008". ICPSR Data Holdings. August 31, 2009. doi:10.3886/icpsr24608. Retrieved September 30, 2025.
  69. ↑ "CBS News/New York Times Callback Survey, November #1, 2012". ICPSR Data Holdings. July 8, 2013. doi:10.3886/icpsr34685.v1. Retrieved September 30, 2025.
  70. ↑ "Cortez Masto, Catherine". International Year Book and Statesmen's Who's Who. doi:10.1163/1570-6664_iyb_sim_person_55416. Retrieved September 30, 2025.
  71. ↑ "References". Interactive Group Work: 461–478. January 24, 2025. doi:10.1002/9781394346691.ref. ISBN 978-1-394-34669-1.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN (link)
  72. ↑ Smith, John. “Historic Firsts Mark the 119th Congress.” Congressional Quarterly, January 2025.
  73. ↑ "U.S. Senate: Senators Who Became President". www.senate.gov. Retrieved January 19, 2026.

    References linked to notes

    References not linked to notes

    References

    • Barone, Michael, and Grant Ujifusa, The Almanac of American Politics 1976: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (1975); new edition every 2 years, informal practices, and member information)
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 2001–2004: A Review of Government and Politics: 107th and 108th Congresses (2005); summary of Congressional activity, as well as major executive and judicial decisions; based on Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report and the annual CQ almanac.
      • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1997–2001 (2002)
      • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1993–1996 (1998)
      • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1989–1992 (1993)
      • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1985–1988 (1989)
      • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1981–1984 (1985)
      • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1977–1980 (1981)
      • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1973–1976 (1977)
      • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1969–1972 (1973)
      • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1965–1968 (1969)
      • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1945–1964 (1965), the first of the series

    Institutional studies

    • Brady, David W. and Mathew D. McCubbins, eds. Party, Process, and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002)
    • Cooper, John Milton, Jr. Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations. (Cambridge U. Press, 2001).
    • Feinman, Ronald L. Twilight of progressivism: the western Republican senators and the New Deal (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981)
    • Feldman, Gabe. "Death of a senator: Life expectancy and causes of death in 20th-century US senators." American journal of public health 93.5 (2003): 771-771. online
    • Finley, Keith M. Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938-1965 (LSU Press, 2008).
    • Goodwin, George. "The seniority system in Congress." American Political Science Review 53.2 (1959): 412-436.
    • Gould, Lewis L. The Most Exclusive Club: A History Of The Modern United States Senate (2005) the latest full-scale history by a scholar
    • Harmon, F. Martin. Presidents versus Senators: Conflicts and Rivalries That Shaped America (2021) excerpt
    • Hernon, Joseph Martin. Profiles in Character: Hubris and Heroism in the U.S. Senate, 1789–1990 (Sharpe, 1997).
    • Hoebeke, C. H. The Road to Mass Democracy: Original Intent and the Seventeenth Amendment. (Transaction Books, 1995).
    • Hunt, Richard. (1998). "Using the Records of Congress in the Classroom," OAH Magazine of History, 12 (Summer): 34–37.
    • Johnson, Robert David. The Peace Progressives and American Foreign Relations. (Harvard U. Press, 1995). in 1920s and 1930s
    • Koger, Gregory. "Cloture reform and party government in the Senate, 1918–1925." Journal of politics 68.3 (2006): 708-719.
    • Malsberger, John W. From Obstruction to Moderation: The Transformation of Senate Conservatism, 1938–1952. (Susquehanna U. Press 2000).
    • Paulos, Michael Harold and Konden Smith Hansen. The Reed Smoot Hearings: The Investigation of a Mormon Senator and the Transformation of an American Religion (2022) the first Mormon Senator
    • Ritchie, Donald A. Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents. (Harvard UP, 1991).
    • Ritchie, Donald A. The Congress of the United States: A Student Companion (Oxford UP, 2001).
    • Ritchie, Donald A. Reporting from Washington: The History of the Washington Press Corps (Oxford UP, 2005).
    • Rothman, David J. Politics and power; the United States Senate, 1869-1901 (Harvard UP, 1966) richly detailed scholarly history online
    • Swift, Elaine K. The Making of an American Senate: Reconstitutive Change in Congress, 1787–1841. U. of Michigan Press, 1996.
    • Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the United States Senate (Johns Hopkins UP, 2004) excerpt
    • Zelizer, Julian E. On Capitol Hill: The Struggle to Reform Congress and its Consequences, 1948–2000 (2006) online

    Biographical

    • American National Biography (1999) 24 volumes plus 2 supplements; contains scholarly biographies of all politicians no longer alive; online
    • Baker, Richard A.. and Roger H. Davidson, eds. First Among Equals: Outstanding Senate Leaders of the Twentieth Century (1992).
    • Ashby, LeRoy and Gramer, Rod. Fighting the Odds: The Life of Senator Frank Church. (Washington State U. Press, 1994). Chair of Foreign Relations in the 1970s; Democrat of Idaho
    • Barnard, Harry. Independent Man: The Life of Senator James Couzens (Wayne State University Press, 2002), of Michigan.
    • Becnel, Thomas A. Senator Allen Ellender of Louisiana: A Biography. (Louisiana State U. Press, 1995). Democrat online
    • Caro, Robert A. Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson Vol. 3 (Vintage, 2009).
    • Farrell, John A. Ted Kennedy: A Life (2022) Democrat of Massachusetts
    • Fite, Gilbert. Richard B. Russell, Jr., Senator from Georgia (1991) powerful Democrat; online
    • Garraty, John A. Henry Cabot Lodge, a biography (1953), Republican of Massachusetts online
    • Goldberg, Robert Alan. Barry Goldwater (1995), Rep;ublican of Arizona
    • Herman, Arthur. Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator (Simon and Schuster, 2000), Republican of Wisconsin.
    • Houston, G. David. "A Negro Senator." Journal of Negro History 7.3 (1922): 243-256. online; Blanche Bruce Republican of Mississippi
    • Johnson, Claudius O. Borah of Idaho (1936) online, Republican
    • Johnson, Marc C. Political Hell-Raiser: The Life and Times of Senator Burton K. Wheeler of Montana (University of Oklahoma Press, 2019); Democrat
    • Keith, Caroline H. For Hell and a Brown Mule: The Biography of Senator Millard E. Tydings (Madison Books, 1991), Democrat of Maryland
    • Laymon, Sherry. Fearless: John L McClellan, United States Senator (2022), Democrat of Arkansas
    • Lower, Richard Coke. A Bloc of One: The Political Career of Hiram W. Johnson (Stanford University Press, 1993); Republican of California.
    • McFarland, Ernest W. The Ernest W. McFarland Papers: The United States Senate Years, 1940–1952. (Prescott, Ariz.: Sharlot Hall Museum, 1995). Democratic majority leader 1950–1952; of Arizona
    • Mann, Robert. The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell and the Struggle for Civil Rights. (Harcourt Brace, 1996).
    • Miller, G. Wayne. An Uncommon Man: The Life & Times of Senator Claiborne Pell (UPNE, 2011) Democrat of Rhode Island.
    • Norris, George W. Fighting Liberal: The Autobiography of George W. Norris (U of Nebraska Press, 1992) Republican of Nebraska. online
      • Fellman, David. "The Liberalism of Senator Norris." American Political Science Review 40.1 (1946): 27-51. online
    • Palermo, Joseph A. In His Own Right: The Political Odyssey of Senator Robert F. Kennedy (Columbia UP, 2002) Democrat of New York.
    • Patterson, James T. Mr. Republican; a biography of Robert A. Taft (1972) online
    • Price, Christopher. "Peace and Progress: The Life and Political Contributions of Senator Jennings Randolph." West Virginia History: A Journal of Regional Studies 14.2 (2020): 1-27. Democrat of West Virginia
    • O'Brien, Michael. Philip Hart: The Conscience of the Senate. (Michigan State U. Press 1995) Democrat of Michigan.
    • Rice, Ross R. Carl Hayden: Builder of the American West (U. Press of America, 1993). Chair of Appropriations in the 1960s and 1970s; Democrat of Arizona.
    • Stephenson, Nathaniel W. Nelson W. Aldrich: A Leader in American Politics (1930), powerful Republican from Rhode Island
    • Valeo, Frank. Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader: A Different Kind of Senate, 1961–1976 (Sharpe, 1999). Senate majority leader. Democrat Of Montana.
    • Weller, Cecil Edward, Jr. Joe T. Robinson: Always a Loyal Democrat. U. of Arkansas Press, 1998. Majority leader in the 1930s; of Arkansas.
    • Winston, Mitch. Senator Daniel Inouye: WW II Hero and America Finest Senator (2022), Democrat of Hawaii

    Official Senate histories (and reviews)

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