Planned liberalism

Planned liberalism (French: Libéralisme planifié) was a post-independence economic development policy aimed at integrating the economies of East and West Cameroon.[1] However, several African countries have followed a similar model. It has been described as African Dirigisme,[2] and noted to be linking the private sector with development efforts.[3] It has characteristics of a planned economy,[1] economic nationalism, and crony capitalism.[4] Another view is that planned liberalism is neo-Keynesian.[5]

Planned liberalism in Cameroon

During Ahmadou Ahidjo's Presidency

In 1965, Cameroon changed its economic philosophy from African socialism under the guidance of its first president, Ahmadou Ahidjo. Under planned liberalism, the state began to regulate and manage natural resources and to guide foreign investment into specific economic sectors or geographic areas. In the process, the government partnered with foreign firms to set up various parastatal enterprises (government-affiliated entities designed to meet commercial and state capitalist objectives).[6][7] Meanwhile, it encouraged private enterprise, investment, and the operation of market forces.[8]

Liberal planning, according to Ahidjo, led to direct prosperity. He stated that, "there was no longer an absolute gap between the two formulas" (i.e., Marxist socialism and Western capitalism),[9] Ahidjo was known to be an anti-communist,[10] and encouraged Cameroonians to start their enterprises so that a private sector could emerge. With the economic decline in the 1970s and 1980s, the government privatized parastatal companies.

The policy was strongly interventionist and incorporated elements of economic nationalism. An important political aspect of liberal planning was that Western investment increased while the non-aligned foreign policy could be continued. Full identification with the West was thus not possible. Because liberal planning was primarily seen as an economic model rather than a political one, the Ahidjo government did not consider it necessary to democratize the Republic of Cameroon.

Abel Eyinga traces the theory of liberal planning to Gaullist economic doctrine and views it as "the African equivalent of 'participation'".[11] According to him, the concept first emerged around 1965 in Gabon, where it was possibly elaborated differently than later in Cameroon, which embraced it as an economic ideology.[11]

To develop, the President of the Republic of Cameroon at that time has set himself the objective of self-centered development and the doctrine of "planned liberalism", which he defines as follows: "We intend to submit, henceforth, our international economic relations to our objectives of internal development, that is to say, we intend to promote a truly integrated economy, characterized by effective control of the principal factors of development." It is, at bottom, a humane socialism which seeks its path pragmatically.[12]

President Ahmadou Ahidjo El Hadj explained this choice at the time by declaring (translated from French from the original publication in Le Monde diplomatique);

"We believe that the most dynamic factor driving our initial progress is our choice of economic liberalism—a Liberalism wherein the prospect of legitimate profit stimulates initiative and freedom fosters imagination. However, that is an ordered, selective liberalism, not an archaic one; it is a liberalism that finds its full expression within the predefined framework of the Plan. In economic matters—and particularly regarding investment—we place greater faith in the positive psychological impact of freedom and confidence than in the results of actions driven by compulsion. In the current national and global climate, this policy of liberalism is undoubtedly the best for our country and, consequently, best serves the interest of our people. It represents a successful alignment between the development ideal to which we aspire and the reality on the ground. It embodies the realism that must guide our actions. We therefore openly declare that private investments—whether domestic or foreign—will always be welcome in Cameroon; they are guaranteed full profitability through the mechanisms of our Investment Code, which was specifically designed to reflect our liberal approach. At the same time—let us state that this policy does not preclude the policy—or indeed the necessity—of a public mixed sector. Such a sector serves as a tool for the government to drive, oversee, and steer the national economy as a whole, while also safeguarding the fundamental interests of the State."[13]

He further stated;

"We wish (...) to lay the foundations for a social democracy which rejects every idea of alienation of man, even if this alienation carries within it the promise of a better life for our children and grandchildren. We are therefore in favor of liberalism, a modern, planned liberalism, that is, one that is kept in check by state regulation. We therefore regard private ownership of the means of production and their utilization for private profit as a sign of progress."[14]

Kamé Samuel, described as one of Ahmadou Ahidjo's principal ideologues, was reported to have quoted Hitler and Goebbels favorably, and referred enthusiastically to the "Nazi Youth" and to the "UNR organizations during the military coup in Algiers". The French ambassador to Cameroon, Jean-Pierre Bénard, in a report addressed to his hierarchy, recognizes that "Mr. Kamé does not hide his preferences for a fascist-style policy". Paul Audat, a colonial administrator who was close to Kamé, shares this view, stating, "He (Kamé) is a student who became a fascist. A single-party fascist, a supporter of the absolute power of the head of state, who was always very virulent against the UPC." Whether Kamé Samuel's influence on planned liberalism is not known.[10]

During Paul Biya's Presidency

Paul Biya, the second and current President of Cameroon since 1982, has emphasized a similar ideology of Communitarian liberalism. The difference between planned liberalism and communitarian liberalism is that communitarian liberalism is more supportive of privatization,[15] but the idea of a third way is still part of the ideology.[16] While the National Union for Democracy and Progress embraces economic liberalism and anti-socialism[17] they also advocate for planned liberalism.[18][19]

Criticism

Critics claim that planned liberalism has failed due to widespread corruption, overwhelming government bureaucracy, almost no development of the country[20] and ill-advised government backing of certain foreign investors. These faults became evident during the economic crisis of the mid-1980s. Cameroon, under Paul Biya, has increasingly turned to the privatization of state-owned industries to stimulate its economy.[15]

Other countries

Rwanda

During the rule of dictator Juvénal Habyarimana (1973–1994), Rwanda adopted an economic policy referred to as "liberal planning" ("Libéralisme planifié").[21][22] Liberal planning as an economic ideology was proclaimed at the third congress of the ruling Mouvement Révolutionnaire Nationale pour le Développement (MRND) in 1980[23] and involved a six-year development plan (1980–1986) aimed at foreign (Western) investors, self-sufficient food production, better use of human resources, and improved living conditions.[24] In 1988, state-owned enterprises were privatized as part of the liberal planning policy.[25]

Ivory Coast

Ivory Coast under Félix Houphouët-Boigny from 1960 to 1978 embraced something similar to planned liberalism, afterwards he embraced economic liberalism.[26][27][28][29][30] The Democratic Party of Ivory Coast claims to be an economic liberal party which excludes state intervention in economic activities. However, the PDCI accommodates state capitalism, but after independence, it is considered only a transitional phase while waiting for Ivorian capitalists to be trained. They embraced state capitalism from 1960 until the 1970s.[31][32][33][34] Under his government, Ivory Coast took the course of liberal free market economy after 1978.

Gabon

Gabon under Omar Bongo from 1978 until 1987 tried to adopt planned liberalism,[35][36][37] before embracing economic liberalism again like in the 1960s and 1970s.[38] From 1987 until 1990 after stopping to advocate for planning liberalism, the government still embraced statist economics, before embracing free markets and capitalism.[39] Omar Bongo developed the philosophy that was referred to as Rénovation (Renovation), the main objective of which was to combat tribalism and regionalism and to create a national identity. Foreign entrepreneurs were attracted, and an attempt was made to create an indigenous middle class. It then became clear that Rénovation had mainly led to predatory capitalism, and therefore the slogan "Rénover la Rénovation" (Renovate the Renovation) was proposed. Predatory capitalism had to be countered by a "directed liberalism" ("libéralisme dirigé") in which the state's role in economic life was strengthened. The president believed that "directed liberalism" was essentially a form of capitalism but would result in a kind of socialism. He probably meant that as many people as possible would benefit from the expected economic growth. Directed and planned liberalism (libéralisme dirigé et planifié) was also applied in other French-speaking African countries as an alternative to liberal capitalism and state socialism. Since 1976, the policy of the country had been oriented towards Le Progressisme Démocratique et Concerté (Democratic and Coordinated Progressivism), although it has never really become clear what this actually entailed, except that according to Omar Bongo it was a philosophy that was in line with "African traditions" and embraced a kind of "community humanism", as well as a continuation of economic liberalism after 1990 again.[37]

Other African countries

Senegal under Léopold Sédar Senghor embraced, from 1975 onward, a form of planned liberalism, even though it was more of a mixed economy.[40], The First Republic of Madagascar under Philibert Tsiranana (1959–1972) pursued economic policies very similar to liberal planning.[41]. Guinea under Lansana Conté embraced planned liberalism from 1985 until 1986 while also advocating for economic liberalism policies.[42]Morocco in the late 1970s until the mid-1980s tried to adopt an economic system similar to the one of planned liberalism.[43][44]

Notes

  1. 1 2 Fuh Kun, George; Kawzu Kum, Jude (31 July 2017). "Understanding Agro-pastoral Shows in a Planned Economy (1973-1987): the Case of Cameroon". Scholars Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences. 5 (7): 770–778.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  2. ↑ Joseph, Richard, ed. (2002). Gaullist Africa: Cameroon under Ahmadu Ahidjo (Repr ed.). Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publ. ISBN 978-978-156-004-0.
  3. ↑ Chauleur, Pierre (1976-08-01). "Un « libéralisme planifié » pour associer le secteur privé aux efforts de développement". Le Monde diplomatique (in French). Retrieved 2026-06-16.
  4. ↑ KahjumTakor, Nixon; FuhKum, George. "Incubation of the Economic Crisis in Post-Colonial Cameroon 1960–1987: An Experience in State Capitalism" (PDF).
  5. ↑ "Race to the Bottom: La banqueroute du «libéralisme communautaire» et de la psyché nationale au Cameroun / The Bankruptcy of the "Communal Liberalism" and the National Psyche in Cameroon. | Espace d'Expression du Comité de Libération des Prisonniers Politiques (CL2P)". engojoeldidier.wordpress.com. Retrieved 2026-01-20.
  6. ↑ Shepelev, Denis Viktorovich; Shepeleva, Dina Viktorovna (2018). "Legal Aspects of Profit Making by State-Owned Enterprises". Current Issues of the State and Law. 2 (5): 47–55. doi:10.20310/2587-9340-2018-2-5-47-55. ISSN 2587-9340.
  7. ↑ Profiles of Existing Government Corporations, pp. 1–16
  8. ↑ DeLancey and DeLancey 6, 221.
  9. ↑ Willard R. Johnson: The Cameroon Federation: Political Integration in a Fragmentary Society, Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ 1970, p. 311
  10. 1 2 Thomas Deltombe, Manuel Domergue and Jacob Tatsita, Kemerun!, La Découverte, 2019
  11. 1 2 A. Eyinga: "Gaullist Afrika: Cameroon under Ahmadu Ahidjo, cap. From African Socialism to Liberal Planning", Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd., Enugu, Nigeria 2002 (herdruk van het origineel uit 1978), p. 137
  12. ↑ Chauleur, Pierre (August 1, 1976). "Un "libéralisme planifié" pour associer le secteur privé aux efforts de développement". Le Monde diplomatique.
  13. ↑ Daouda, Youssoufa (July 19, 1976). "Libéralisme Planifié et Développement Autocentrée". Le Monde Diplomatique. Retrieved 16 June 2026.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  14. ↑ Cameroon Times, vol. 5, no. 117, December 1965 (quoted in: Willard R. Johnson: The Cameroon Federation: Political Integration in a Fragmentary Society, Princeton University Press, New Jersey 1970, p. 311)
  15. 1 2 DeLancey and DeLancey 221.
  16. ↑ "LE LIBÉRALISME COMMUNAUTAIRE DE PAUL BIYA UNE IDÉE DE L'ÉTAT ET DE L'UNITÉ NATIONALE" (PDF). api.pageplace.de.
  17. ↑ "Cameroon • Africa Elects". Archived from the original on 2022-08-11. Retrieved 2026-01-20.
  18. ↑ "Afrique Express | Santé et Nature". www.afrique-express.com. Retrieved 2026-01-20.
  19. ↑ Milton H. Krieger and Joseph Takougang, African State and Society in the 1990s: Cameroon's Political Crossroads(2000), Westview Press, pages 143–145.
  20. ↑ "Politique publique des transports et construction de la Nation au Cameroun sous le libéralisme planifié (1960–1985)".
  21. ↑ "The International Coffee Economy and the Production of Genocide in Rwanda" (PDF). pol.illinoisstate.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-11-12.
  22. ↑ J. Habyarimana: Discours, messages et entretiens, 1982, p. 328
  23. ↑ Mugesera, A. (April 8, 1983). "Le liberalisme planifié rwandais: une approche théorique". Zaïre-Afrique: économie, culture, vie sociale. 23 (180): 597–607 – via www.africabib.org.
  24. ↑ United Nations Economic and Social Council Meeting Record, March 22, 1984, p. 11
  25. ↑ Karake Karenzi: POLITICAL PATRONAGE AND PRIVATIZATION OF PUBLIC ENTERPRISES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF KENYA AND RWANDA, University of Nairobi, Master's thesis 2004, p. 52
  26. ↑ "Lynne Rienner Publishers | Ivoirien Capitalism African Entrepreneurs in Cote d Ivoire". www.rienner.com.
  27. ↑ Forrest, Tom (April 13, 2023). The African Bourgeoisie. Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 307–342. doi:10.1515/9781685855819-016 – via www.degruyterbrill.com.
  28. ↑ Nyongo, P. Anyang (1978). "Liberal models of Capitalist Development in Africa: Ivory Coast". Africa Development / Afrique et Développement. 3 (2): 5–20. JSTOR 24486337.
  29. ↑ Aka Anghui, Bra Kanon, Félix Houphouët-Boigny and others: L'économie ivorienne, Bulletin de l'Afrique noire Paris 1976 (no page numbering)
  30. ↑ "Côte D'Ivorie – Économie". www.afrique-planete.com. Archived from the original on May 13, 2005.
  31. ↑ Francis Wodie, "Political life in Ivory Coast from 1945 to 1969", Algerian Review of Legal and Political Sciences, vol. 6, no. 3, September 15, 1969, pp. 821–842
  32. ↑ "Cote d'Ivoire Deep Dive Part II: Françafrique, liberal state capitalism and socio-ethnic tensions". 54 Collective. February 15, 2024.
  33. ↑ Mingst, Karen A. (September 1, 1988). "The Ivory Coast at the Semi-Periphery of the World-Economy". International Studies Quarterly. 32 (3): 259–274. doi:10.2307/2600443. JSTOR 2600443 – via Silverchair.
  34. ↑ "côte d'Ivoire's Future: Next Steps in Development and Democracy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-01-15.
  35. ↑ A. Eyinga: Gaullist Africa: Cameroon under Ahmadu Ahidjo, cap. "From African Socialism to Liberal Planning", Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd., Enugu, Nigeria 2002 (reprint of the 1978 original), p. 137
  36. ↑ Pierre François Gonidec, Vân Minh Trân: "Politique comparée du tiers monde", Édition Montchrestien 1980, page numbering missing (ebook) "... the economic regime is « a libéralisme planifié et conducté, capitaliste dans son essence et socialiste dans sa finalité.»"
  37. 1 2 Marc Aicardi de Saint-Paul: "Du roi Denis à Omar Bongo", Éditions Albatros, Paris 1987, page numbering missing (ebook) "... for the sake of economic development and a libéralisme planifié."
  38. ↑ Vanguard, The Patriotic (June 13, 2009). "The Political Longevity of El Hadj Omar Bongo in Gabon Defies Pedestrian Characterization". The Patriotic Vanguard.
  39. ↑ "BTI 2024 Gabon Country Report".
  40. ↑ S L. Senghor: "libéralisme planifié et les voies africaines vers le socialisme", lecture in Tunis in 1975
  41. ↑ A. Eyinga: Gaullist Africa: Cameroon under Ahmadu Ahidjo, cap. "From African Socialism to Liberal Planning", Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd., Enugu, Nigeria 2002 (reprint of the 1978 original), p. 136
  42. ↑ Ansoumane Doré: Économie et société en République de Guinée, 1958–1984, et perspectives, Éditions Bayardère, 1986, p. 499
  43. ↑ J. Owona: Droit constitutionnel et régimes politiques africains, Berger-Levrault, 1985, p. 316
  44. ↑ Jeune Afrique – Numbers 860–873, 1977, p. 30

References

  • DeLancey, Mark W., and Mark Dike DeLancey (2000): Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
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