Octavius C. Granady

Octavius Cato Granady
Granady c. 1928
Born(1885-03-01)March 1, 1885
Danish West Indies
DiedApril 10, 1928(1928-04-10) (aged 43)
Chicago, Illinois, United States
Resting place
Lincoln Cemetery
EducationSt. Lawrence University (LL.B.)
Howard University (J.D.)
Political party
Republican

Octavius Cato Granady (March 1, 1885 – April 10, 1928) was a lawyer, civil rights activist, reformer, and Republican Party politician whose assassination by associates of Al Capone on the day of the Republican primary made national headlines and contributed to the defeat of the Capone organization and Chicago mayor William Hale Thompson.[1][2][3][4]

Granady was born in the Danish West Indies in 1885 and raised in the United States, where he graduated from St. Lawrence University and Howard University School of Law. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson appointed Granady to raise the American flag following the cession of the Danish West Indies.

After serving in World War I, Granady returned to Saint Thomas, where he worked as a labor lawyer was active in the movement for self-rule and civil rights in the rechristened United States Virgin Islands. He was a leading figure in the opposition to military government under James Harrison Oliver.

In 1925, Granady returned to the United States to practice law in Chicago. In 1928, he ran as a reform candidate in the Republican primary for party committeeman from the city's 20th ward. While campaigning on primary day, he was assassinated by machine gun following an automobile chase.[1]

Life

Early years

Octavius Cato Granady was born on March 1, 1885 in the Danish West Indies to Alexander O. and Eliza Granady. He had two living sisters, Mary E. Johnson and Julia Johnson, as well as a brother, Robert Fraser, who died in infancy. In 1890, Granady moved to the United States.

In 1904, Granady served as an officer and founding member of the Roosevelt League of New York's 8th State Assembly district in Brooklyn, backing Republican incumbent President Theodore Roosevelt in that year's presidential election.[5][6]

He attended college at St. Lawrence University in Canton, New York, graduating in 1907 with a Bachelor of Laws degree.[7] After graduating from St. Lawrence, Granady initially remained in New York, where he was a member of several local associations, such as the Cherubin Lodge and the West Indian Forum.[8][9] In 1912, he graduated from Howard University School of Law.[10][11][12][13]

By 1916, Granady was living in Chicago, Illinois, where he was admitted to practice law.[14]

Virgin Islands activism (1917–25)

On March 31, 1917, the Danish West Indies were transferred to the United States as the United States Virgin Islands, and Granady was appointed by President Woodrow Wilson to pull down the Danish flag and raise the American flag.[15][16] He remained in Saint Thomas and organized the island's first class in American history.[16] He served in World War I as a first lieutenant and was discharged with the rank of captain.

Although Granady had been associated with the transition from Danish to American rule on the islands, he soon became a leading critic of the military government under Admiral James Harrison Oliver, under which natives were not granted citizenship nor access to self-rule. His license to practice law was cancelled by the government in December 1917 in response to claims of fraud and exorbitant fees, and he was jailed on similar charges in January 1918.[17] Although he was freed for lack of evidence, he was denied the return of his license under claims of clinical insanity.

Discontent on the islands grew as sailors and marines from the new American naval base disrupted the peace and treated native residents with disrespect, including harder forms of racial discrimination than the Afro-Caribbean majority had experienced under Danish rule. Around Christmas 1918, street fights between sailors from the USS Baltimore and the native population broke out.[18] In response, Granady signed a January 1919 open letter titled "Virgin Islanders Resent Lawlessness" which protested "an outrage on our defenseless people hitherto unknown on this island" by the United States Marine Corps and sailors under Oliver.[19] In February, Oliver wrote to U.S. Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels to share his suspicions that Granady was the primary author of the letter, along with a prior anonymous letter from his clerk, A. C. Burnet.[a] Oliver also suspected that Burnet had given birth to Granady's child in July 1918 before leaving the island.[21] Oliver complained that Granady was using his "considerable and bad influence with the lower classes" to incite racial strife where none had existed before and described him as "demented."[21][22]

In 1921, he moved to Saint Croix and regained his law license, becoming counsel for the Saint Croix Labor Union. He assisted Ralph de Magne de Chabert in organizing a labor strike on the island's sugar plantations. Planters had cut wages by half due to an economic downturn, and Chabert called a strike demanding $1.25 a day in wages. After fourteen weeks, workers were reduced to near starvation conditions and the strike disastrously failed, leading to criticism from Marcus Garvey and D. Hamilton Jackson.[17] Granady left Saint Croix after the collapse of the strike.

In March 1923, Granady was convicted of trespass after he was denied the opportunity to use the testimony of a material witness in his defense.[23] He lost his law license again in January 1924, when the District Court of the Virgin Islands revoked its 1921 renewal.

In April 1924, Granady was represented Saint Thomas (along with Ralph J. Bough of Saint Croix and Frederick Gurty of Saint John) to travel to Washington, D.C. as a delegate to the United States Congress in support of Bill S2786, sponsored by George P. McLean of Connecticut, requesting United States citizenship and a civilian government for the Virgin Islands.[24][25] Granady served as chair and spokesman for the delegation, arguing that the Colonial Council, which had opposed the bill, represented the interests of a narrow class of planters and landowners:

The local press and a number of mass meetings virtually repudiated the Colonial Council for its recent opposition to Senate Bill 2786 granting the islands a civil government. The people of the islands are not citizens of any country; and they are not represented in the legislature. The franchise is so limited that out of 22,000 inhabitants only 800 have the right to vote, which is granted on the basis of property and income.[16]

Although S2786 did not pass, Congress conferred U.S. citizenship on the islanders in 1927 with a limited and conditional set of U.S. voting rights and privileges. After Granady's death, a civilian government was granted to the Virgin Islands in 1931.

Return to Chicago (1925–28)

In 1925, Granady returned to Chicago and rejoined the Chicago Bar Association.[3]

In 1928, the Republican Party within Chicago was split into two camps led by mayor William Hale Thompson and U.S. senator Charles S. Deneen, respectively. Thompson, as mayor, took a lax approach to the enforcement of alcohol prohibition in the city and had the support of infamous Chicago organized crime leader Al Capone. Granady joined the Deneen slate as a candidate for party committeeman for the twentieth ward, a largely Black neighborhood. He was challenging Morris Elder, an ally of Thompson and affiliate of organized crime in the city.

The 1928 primary was marred by violence, including the drive-by assassination of Republican alderman Joe Esposito, himself an organized crime figure and rival of Capone, on March 21.

Assassination

Death and burial

On April 10, primary elections were held against a backdrop of violence and voter intimidation, as well as allegations of electoral fraud. Granady and Deneen requested additional safety measures for their supporters, but the Chicago police denied the request.[2][26]

To rally voters in the face of intimidation, Granady embarked on a pre-announced tour of the ward in an automobile decorated with pro-Deneen flags. His car was driven by law student Euclid Taylor, and he was accompanied by friends Thomas Clark and James Huff. As they approached a polling location near 13th Street and Blue Island Avenue, the group came upon a small crowd of men. While Taylor attempted to reverse the vehicle, a man stepped forward and shot at the car with pistols. The group fled in the vehicle, but they were pursued by gunmen in a sedan, festooned with banners supporting Eller. Some witnesses reported that the pursuing car was joined by a police car.[27][28]

After he was grazed by a bullet, Taylor lost control of the vehicle, which was driven into a curb and a tree at 13th Street and Hoyne Avenue and became disabled.[28] The pursuers, identified in newspapers as seven men, used a machine gun to kill Granady and sped off, leaving Taylor with three minor wounds and Clark and Huff almost unhurt. Granady was shot thirty to fifty times.[1][29] Newspapers reported that "[t]he last thing some witnesses to the murder saw was Eller’s own face prominently pictured on the backs of the receding cars.”[30] Eller won the primary by a wide margin, 7,437 votes to 157, although most Thompson candidates lost their primaries, which was taken as a rejection of political violence in the city.[2]

Granady's funeral at the Gaines African Methodist Episcopal Church was attended by thousands of mourners. Deneen delivered a eulogy, judge Lucius Malmin of the Virgin Islands, Daniel P. Trude and Charles W. Swanson also attended. His sister Mary traveled from New York to attend the service. His pallbearers were members of the Universal Negro Improvement Association, for which he had been a counsel.[31] He was buried in Chicago's Lincoln Cemetery in an unmarked grave.[32]

Investigations and trials

Because there were scores or even hundreds of witnesses to the car chase and murder, and the killers' vehicle had been prominently decorated with Eller campaign materials, most considered the motive of the assassins and the identity of their sponsors an open secret.[30] The Granady assassination quickly became the focus of police and public attention. By April 14, the initial Chicago Police Department investigation had revealed that two volunteer poll watchers had been kidnapped earlier that day. The poll watchers had identified the house where they were kept prisoners and had given information connecting the kidnapping to Granady's murder.[3] A separate investigation was led by United States district attorney George E. Q. Johnson.[3]

As the investigation carried on, local business leaders became frustrated by perceived inaction by the Chicago police, which threatened the city's reputation ahead of the planned Chicago world's fair. In response, the state of Illinois opened a third investigation, led by legendary Chicago attorney Frank J. Loesch as special prosecutor. Loesch hired John Stege, the city chief of detectives, and Sheridan Alexander Bruseaux, a private detective, to assist.[33]

Arrests

The state investigation resulted in at least fourteen arrests, most of whom were known associates of Eller, Capone, and Thompson. John Armondo, an assistant precinct captain for Eller, was identified by Clark and Huff as the primary shooter. He was also charged with attempting to kidnap and shoot George W. Dowthard, a poll worker, who survived after six weeks in the hospital and identified Armondo as his assailant. He was arrested on July 2.[27][28][34] Nine men were arrested for participating in the murder, including Harry Hochstein, James Belcastro, and Louis Clementi, who was identified by Loesch as firing the final shots; and two Chicago policemen, lieutenant Philip J. Carroll and patrolman Michael B. Shannon.[15][28][35] Three men were separately arrested for kidnappings of poll watchers on the West Side.[26][28]

Despite these initial arrests, at least three of the suspects, including Hochstein and Armondo, were released when Morris Eller's son, a Cook County judge named Emanuel, lowered or waived bond requirements.

Witness intimidation and murder

During the trials, a number of key witnesses were harassed, assaulted, intimidated, or murdered:

  • On June 21, James Huff was subject to a kidnapping attempt before being rescued by his wife, Bruseaux, and the Chicago police.[36]
  • On July 31, Benny Zion, an Eller henchman who was identified in the killers' car, was shot to death and found under a pile of refuse hours before Morris Eller was scheduled to appear before the grand jury. Stege described Zion as having a "gabby tongue."[37][38]
  • On October 17, Caesar Jones was attacked while passing an alley.[39]
  • In October, near the start of the first trial, key witness William Cephus was assaulted, and another witness was put on a bus to St. Louis and told to flee.[26] Sallie Cannon, another witness, received a threatening letter and had a brick thrown through her window.[27]
  • On November 1, the brother of Margaret Welch, a witness against Armondo and Belcastro, was kidnapped, and Margaret was threatened with death.[40]
  • On October 20, 1929, Shelby McDougal, a key witness against Lt. Carroll, was murdered by a love rival.[41]

1928 conspiracy trial

On August 3, 1928, Loesch brought forward charges against Morris Eller, Emanuel Eller, and 15 henchmen with 23 counts of general conspiracy, as follows:[42]

  • Counts 1-7 were charges of malicious assaults on 7 victims, including poll watchers and attorneys;
  • Count 8 was a charge of conspiracy to murder Granady with revolvers and deadly weapons;
  • Counts 9-15 were charges of kidnapping of the 7 people above;
  • Count 16 was a general count covering the assault of election day watchers and challengers to prevent them from performing their duties;
  • Count 17 grouped all the assaults into a single count;
  • Count 18 grouped all the kidnappings;
  • Count 19 was a charge with intimidation of poll watchers;
  • Count 20 was a charge of aiding and abetting 8 men in voting multiple times illegally;
  • Count 21 was a charge of defrauding taxpayers by padding the sanitary district payrolls;
  • Count 22 was a charge of defrauding the city by paying people for services that were not rendered, in return for election help; and
  • Count 23 charged the conspirators with protecting vice dens, such as houses of prostitution, alcohol, and gambling, in return for election help.

The charges against the Ellers were eventually dropped, and one henchman was found dead on the eve of Eller's testimony to the grand jury. However, Loesch was able to secure indictments, and the trial proceeded in October under Judge John M. O'Connor. On November 2, William Cephus testified that Eller had told him, "Winning this election is going to be a big job and we've got to win. You will have the police with you and a judge so you won't be bothered. If any of you boys don't have guns you can get them at Emanuel's house."[27] Cephus also testified that one day after the murder, he overheard two of the men saying that they "hated to kill Granady."[27][43] Loesch also quoted from Eller's speech to rally his precinct captains on the morning of the primary, "Don't let anything stop you from winning this election, and use guns if necessary. ... You can get guns at Johnny Armond's house if you want them."[26] Another witness testified that they were told by an Eller precinct captain, "You fellows must be crazy. Why don't you drop this Deneen stuff? Your friend, Granady, won't be here after 5 o'clock, and if you're wise, you won't come around after 4."[44]

However, witnesses for the defense offered conflicting testimony, alleging that the defendants had been elsewhere during the crimes.[45] Reverend Joseph C. McMillan testified that the shooter had been much taller than John Armondo and claimed that Bruseaux had threatened him and attempted to bribe him to get false testimony.[46][47]

On November 23, 1928, fifteen of the sixteen defendants were convicted and assessed fines, although none received jail time.[48]

1929 murder trial

On October 11, 1929, Loesch persuaded a special grand jury to indict Carroll, four other Chicago police officers, Armando, Belcastro, and two criminal associates, Louis Clemente and Thomas Somnario, for the actual murder. The trial began on November 18, 1929 and lasted only eight days under hostile judge Joseph B. David. During the trial, Loesch's case crumbled as many witnesses changed their stories.

Carroll's defense rested on coroners' testimony that a shotgun was used to kill Granady rather than a police revolver. Loesch's theory of the case rested on multiple criminality, arguing that it did not matter who had fired the shot that killed Granady, as all of the defendants had pursued Granady's car and shot at it. "In Illinois," Loesch said, "they are all accessories and all guilty of murder."[49]

Euclid Taylor testified that Armondo had shot at them from the mob at 13th Street and Blue Island Avenue before jumping on the running board of a squad car and continuing to fire. On the second day of the trial, Joseph McMillan was again called by the prosecution, despite his testimony against their case in the conspiracy trial. He again refused to identify Armondo as shooter and again accused Bruseaux of attempting to bribe him.[15] Judge David accused State Attorney Swanson of wiretapping the room.[50]

The third prosecution's third witness, Bryant McDonald, changed his story and swore that while he had seen a little man walk into the street and shoot at the car, this man was arrested by a uniformed police officer and three plain clothes detectives. He also testified that none of these men were present in the courtroom. Another witness picked out Carroll with uncertainty.[35] Another witness for the prosecution, Julius Mayo, identified one of the defense attorneys as Carroll, causing laughter in the courtroom, and another prosecution witness was impeached on the grounds that the state attorney's office had bribed him by finding him a job as a washroom attendant.[51] A police sergeant, Marshall Couch, testified that he had seen Armondo firing from the running board, but he had actually arrested another, tall, armed man and released him upon being told by three men with badges that the shooter was a detective.[51]

The star witness, Margaret Welch, fell to her knees, crying that she had been about to commit perjury. When the defense claimed that she had been bribed with $1,500 to testify, Loesch was forced to nolle prosequi his case against Belcastro and Armondo.[52] Witness Helen Madigan became confused on the stand, and the defense produced two witnesses, one of whom testified that Carroll and his squad did not arrive until ten minutes after the killing.

By November 26, 1929, the murder trial had devolved into a farce, and Loesch and Judge David were engaged in yelling matches.[52] On November 27, Loesch moved to dismiss the case, arguing that David had abused witnesses and counsel and had repeatedly prejudged the case, saying he would set aside any verdict of guilty. David dismissed all charges.[38] None of the murder suspects received jail time.[53]

Legacy

Despite Loesch's losses in court, most of the major candidates backed by Thompson lost the primary by a landslide. Voters appeared to be sickened by the violence and chaos, and reminded of the perpetrators by daily headlines about the murder and election conspiracy. Ultimately, none of Thompson's slate won in November 1928.[2] The Chicago general elections of November 1928 are generally agreed to have been free of corruption and election interference, as Capone took a step back from politics.[38] Furthermore, energized by their success in breaking Eller and Thompson's hold, civic leaders raised money to fund Prohibition investigators allied with the federal Department of the Treasury, leading to Al Capone's eventual downfall.

Although not all of his initiatives succeeded in his lifetime, Granady's work for a civil government in the Virgin Islands and higher wages for union workers in Saint Croix were eventually fulfilled after his death. In 2010, the fifth consitutional convention of the Virgin Islands included Granady in a list of native leaders who were persecuted by the military government, and he is mentioned in the historical section of the Proposed Virgin Islands Constitution.[54]

Notes

  1. ↑ Perhaps notable attorney and educator Aminta Clarita Burnet[20]

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Machine Gun Spat Death; Chicago Votes Under Police Protection". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Machine Gun Murder Stirs Drastic Action". Chicago Tribune. April 11, 1928. pp. 1, 4. Retrieved December 11, 2025 – via Internet Archive.
  3. 1 2 3 4 "Indianapolis Times 14 April 1928 — Hoosier State Chronicles: Indiana's Digital Historic Newspaper Program". newspapers.library.in.gov. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
  4. ↑ "1928 Pineapple Primary in Chicago... gangland... - RareNewspapers.com". www.rarenewspapers.com. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
  5. ↑ "Colored Voters Organizing". Brooklyn Times-Union. August 24, 1904. p. 2. Retrieved December 5, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  6. ↑ "Colored Voters were for Theodore Roosevelt". Brooklyn Times-Union. November 16, 1904. p. 2. Retrieved December 5, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  7. ↑ General Catalogue of the Trustees, Officers, and Graduates and of Students Not Graduates of The St. Lawrence University (PDF). Canton, NY: St Lawrence University. 1856–1920. pp. 125, 234.
  8. ↑ "The News of Greater New York | Brooklyn". The New York Age. September 17, 1908. p. 7. Retrieved December 5, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  9. ↑ "Afro-American Notes". Brooklyn Eagle. July 31, 1908. p. 8. Retrieved December 5, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  10. ↑ "Slideshow | NMAH.AC.0618.S04.01_ref2548". edan.si.edu. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
  11. ↑ "Left to right: Frederick McKinney, Octavious Granady, Robert Owens". J. Clay Smith Selected Photographs. December 15, 2016.
  12. ↑ "Frederick McKinney, Arthur Turner and Octavious Granady". J. Clay Smith Selected Photographs. December 15, 2016.
  13. ↑ "Howard Law Graduates of 1912: Arthur Turner, Octavious Granady, Robert N. Owens and Fred Mckinney". J. Clay Smith Selected Photographs. December 15, 2016.
  14. ↑ The National Corporation Reporter. United States Corporation Bureau, Incorporated. 1916.
  15. 1 2 3 "Granady Murder Trial Gets Under Way After Four Day Witness Parade". The Black Dispatch. November 28, 1929. pp. 1–2. Retrieved November 21, 2025.
  16. 1 2 3 "Virgin Isles Commission Arrives". The Afro-American. May 30, 1924. p. 8. Archived from the original on September 5, 2025. Retrieved September 5, 2025.
  17. 1 2 Garvey, Marcus (2016). Dixon, John; Hill, Robert A.; Rodriguez, Mariela Haro; Yuen, Anthony (eds.). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, Volume XIII: The Caribbean Diaspora, 1921-1922, Volume 13. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-7428-2.
  18. ↑ Walrond, Eric D. (1923). "Autocracy in the Virgin Islands". Current History. 19 (1): 121–123. ISSN 2641-080X. JSTOR 45329540.
  19. ↑ Franciss, Rothschild; Granady, Octavius C.; Emanuel, Chas. A.; Innin, Randolph A. (January 24, 1919). Written at Port-of-Spain, St. Thomas. "Virgin Islanders Resent Lawlessness". The Monitor. Omaha, Nebraska (published January 25, 1919). p. 1. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  20. ↑ "Black History Spotlight: Aminita C. N. Burnet". St. John Source. February 9, 2005.
  21. 1 2 Virgin Islands, Governor (February 3, 1919). "CGL". Caribbean Genealogy Library. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 13, 2018. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
  22. ↑ Boyer, William W. (1983). America's Virgin Islands : a history of human rights and wrongs. Internet Archive. Durham, N.C. : Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-89089-240-4.
  23. ↑ "People v. Granady, District Court, Virgin Islands". www.courtlistener.com. May 25, 1923. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
  24. ↑ Williams, Gov. Philip (April 1, 1924). "Government of the Virgin Islands of the United States St. Croix Official Publication" (PDF). St. Croix Avis. 80 (75): 1, 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 30, 2025. Retrieved August 30, 2025 – via University of Florida.
  25. ↑ United States, ed. (1924). Providing a civil government for the Virgin Islands: hearings before the Committee on Territories and Insular Possessions, United States Senate, Sixty-eighth Congress, first session, on S. 2786, a bill to provide a civil government for the Virgin Islands, and for other purposes. HeinOnline world constitutions illustrated. Washington: Government Printing Office.
  26. 1 2 3 4 "5 Kidnapers Pointed Out In Courtroom: Evidence Presented in Election Case". The Chicago Defender. October 20, 1928. pp. 1, 9. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 "Witnesses in Granady Case Name Gunman: Tell How Murder Plot Was Carried Out". The Chicago Defender. November 3, 1928. pp. 1, 12. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 "| Homicide in Chicago 1870-1930". homicide.northwestern.edu. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
  29. ↑ "Granady Murder Witness Menaced". Chicago Daily Tribune. June 22, 1928. pp. 1, 8. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  30. 1 2 Kraus, Joe (2019). The kosher Capones: a history of Chicago's Jewish gangsters. Ithaca [New York]: Northern Illinois University Press, an imprint of Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-4731-1.
  31. ↑ "Notables Attend Granady Funeral". The Chicago Defender. April 21, 1928. p. 22. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  32. ↑ Rumore, Kori (July 25, 2021). "As first victim of Chicago's 1919 race riots finally receives a grave marker, here's a look at other notable people buried in Lincoln Cemetery". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on September 13, 2024. Retrieved November 19, 2025.
  33. ↑ Wolfe, Matthew (July 23, 2025). "The Talented Mr. Bruseaux". The Atavist Magazine. Retrieved November 21, 2025.
  34. ↑ "Five Identify Eller Helper as Slayer". Chicago Daily Tribune. June 19, 1928. pp. 1, 8. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  35. 1 2 "New Granady Murder Story Stirs Up Trial". Chicago Daily Tribune. November 21, 1929. p. 7. Retrieved November 21, 2025.
  36. ↑ "Granady Murder Witness Menaced | Gang Attempts to Kidnap Him; He's Protected". Chicago Tribune. June 22, 1928. p. 1. Retrieved November 21, 2025.
  37. ↑ "Find Body of Indicted Man | Benny Zion, Under Election Day Fraud Charges, Is Murdered". The Evansville Journal. July 31, 1928. p. 1. Retrieved November 21, 2025.
  38. 1 2 3 Hoffman, Dennis Earl, ed. (2010). Scarface Al and the crime crusaders: Chicago's private war against Capone (Pbk. ed.). Carbondale, Ill: Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-8596-6.
  39. ↑ "Eller Case Witness Victim of Assault". The Chicago Tribune. October 17, 1928. p. 44. Retrieved September 15, 2025.
  40. ↑ "Death Threat Halts Trial: Youth Missing; Sister Warned Not To Testify". Chicago Daily Tribune. November 2, 1928. pp. 1, 2. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  41. ↑ "Chicago Probes New Slayings In Political Intrigue". Belvidere Daily Republican. October 21, 1929. p. 1. Retrieved November 21, 2025.
  42. ↑ "Ellers Accused in Indictment of 23 Counts". Chicago Tribune. August 4, 1928. p. 2. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  43. ↑ "Says Judge Armed Killer: Witnesses in Granady Case Name Gunman; Tell How Murder Plot Was Carried Out". The Chicago Defender. November 3, 1928. pp. 1, 12. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  44. ↑ "Tells Court of Plot to Slay Granady: Witness Says Eller Paid Him To Vote". The Chicago Defender. October 27, 1928. pp. 1, 2. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  45. ↑ "Eller's Nephew Pictured As Too Meek To Kidnap". Chicago Tribune. November 16, 1928. p. 9. Retrieved December 11, 2025 – via Internet Archive.
  46. ↑ "Jury Expected to Get Eller Aid Case Saturday". Chicago Tribune. November 21, 1928. p. 5. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  47. ↑ "Granady Case Witness Tells of 'Threats'". The Chicago Defender. November 10, 1928. p. 1. Retrieved November 21, 2025.
  48. ↑ "15 of Eller Gang Guilty". Chicago Tribune. November 23, 1928. p. 1. Retrieved November 21, 2025.
  49. ↑ "Hinge Carroll Defense on Gun Used in Slaying". Chicago Tribune. November 19, 1929. p. 5. Archived from the original on December 2, 2025. Retrieved December 2, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  50. ↑ "Judge Rips Out at Swanson in Carroll Trial". Chicago Tribune. November 20, 1929. p. 1. Retrieved November 21, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  51. 1 2 "Witness Adds New Comedy to Carroll Trial". Chicago Tribune. November 22, 1929. p. 11. Retrieved November 21, 2025.
  52. 1 2 "Chicago's Granady Case, a $300,000 Tragedy That Was Turned Into A Farce". New York Daily News. January 12, 1930. pp. 10–11. Retrieved November 21, 2025 – via Newspapers.com.
  53. ↑ "Granady Murder Trial Blows Up". The Chicago Defender. December 7, 1929. p. 1. Retrieved November 21, 2025.
  54. ↑ "The Proposed Virgin Islands Constitution From the Fifth Constitutional Convention". www.govinfo.gov. Retrieved August 30, 2025.
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