Nouns in Circassian

This article describes the properties of nouns in the Circassian languages, encompassing both the Adyghe language (West Circassian) and the Kabardian language (East Circassian).[1]

Singular and plural

A Circassian noun can be in one of two states: singular or plural.[2]

Singular nouns carry a zero morpheme (no prefixes or suffixes), while plural nouns use the suffix -хэ (-xa), which is attached to the stem. In both dialects, a plural noun must typically be in its definite form, meaning it includes case markers such as -р or -м (with exemptions for names and vocative uses).[3] 

  • Adyghe: 
    • Singular: унэ (house); тхылъ (book).
    • Plural: унэ-хэ-р (houses); тхылъ-хэ-р (books).
  • Kabardian:
    • Singular: унэ (house); тхылъ (book).
    • Plural: унэ-хэ-р (houses); тхылъ-хэ-р (books).

Collective Nouns

In Circassian, collective nouns such as жылэ (village), къуаджэ / къуажэ (village), хьэблэ (district), and унагъо / унагъуэ (family) are noteworthy. They can refer to the members of that group and act as a plurale tantum which cannot take the plural suffix itself, though it triggers plural agreement elsewhere in the sentence.[4]

  • жылэм яIэр яIэтмэ, сэри си Iэр сIэтынщ: if the villagers vote, I will also vote (lit. if the villagers raise their hands, I will raise my hand too).

Plurality in Verbs

Circassian verbs also mark plurality. The plural marking on the noun is sometimes optional because it is frequently encoded in other parts of the sentence (like the verb or possessive marking).[5] Verbs use two distinct types of plural markers based on syntactic role:

  • Absolutive: Indicated by the suffix -х- (placed after the root). 
    • Adyghe: макӀо ("he is going") vs. макӀох ("they are going").
    • Kabardian: макӀуэ ("he is going") vs. макӀуэхэ ("they are going").
  • Ergative-Oblique: Indicated by the prefix -а- or -я- (placed before the root). 
    • Adyghe: ыӀуагъ ("he said") vs. а-Ӏуагъ ("they said").
    • Kabardian: жиIащ ("he said") vs. жаIащ ("they said").

Definiteness

Circassian nouns differentiate between definite and indefinite forms,[6] similar to the function of articles (the vs. a/an) in English.[7]

  • Indefinite: The noun usually has no case suffix (zero marking). Used for generalizations or when the object is unknown.
    • Adyghe: кӀалэ "a boy" (undefined).
    • Kabardian: щӀалэ "a boy" (undefined).
  • Definite: The noun takes a specific case marker, usually -р (absolutive) or -м (ergative/oblique). Used when the referent is specific or known.
    • Adyghe: кӀалэр "the boy".
    • Kabardian: щӀалэр "the boy".

Noun cases

Circassian declines nouns into four distinct cases. It is an ergative-absolutive language family, which fundamentally changes how subjects and objects are marked compared to nominative-accusative languages. The absolutive and ergative cases are considered primary, while instrumental and adverbial are periphery cases.[8]

Circassian noun cases[9][10]

Case Suffix IPA Adyghe Example Kabardian Example
Absolutive р /r/ кӀалэр ('the boy') щӀалэр ('the boy')
Ergative-Oblique м /m/ кӀалэм ('the boy's' / 'to the boy') щӀалэм ('the boy's' / 'to the boy')
Instrumental (м)кӀэ /(m)t͡ʃʼa/ кӀалэмкӀэ ('using the boy') щӀалэмкӀэ ('using the boy')
Adverbial эу / ыу / у(э) /aw/, /əw/ кӀалэу ('as a boy') щӀалу ('as a boy')

Third-person (Demonstrative) Pronouns

The 3rd person pronouns (which also serve as demonstrative pronouns) take different root forms for cases rather than standard noun suffixes:[11]

  • Absolutive: Ар (singular), Ахэр (plural).
  • Ergative-Oblique: Ащ (singular), Ахэм (plural). Note: In some Adyghe dialects, Ай is used instead of Ащ.

Absolutive case (-р)

The default, unmarked state of a noun. In an ergative language, the Absolutive case marks the core participant that is most directly affected by the verb (undergoing state change, motion, or creation). It marks the subject of an intransitive verb and the direct object of a transitive verb.[12][13]

1. Marking the subject of monovalent intransitive verbs

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: КӀалэр еджапӀэм кӀуагъэ.   ЩӀалэр еджапӀэм кӀуащ.
Word: КӀалэ-р еджапӀэ-м кӀуагъэ   ЩӀалэ-р еджапӀэ-м кӀуащ
Gloss: boy-ABS school-OBL went   boy-ABS school-OBL went
Function: S LOC VERBintrans   S LOC VERBintrans
Translation: "The boy went to the school."

2. Marking the subject of bivalent intransitive verbs

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: КӀалэр тхылъым еджэ.   ЩӀалэр тхылъым йоджэ.
Word: КӀалэ-р тхылъы-м еджэ   ЩӀалэ-р тхылъы-м йоджэ
Gloss: boy-ABS book-OBL reads   boy-ABS book-OBL reads
Function: S IO VERBintrans   S IO VERBintrans
Translation: "The boy is reading the book."

3. Marking the direct object of transitive verbs

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: Бзылъфыгъэм джанэр егъэкъабзэ.   Бзылъхугъэм джанэр егыкӀы.
Word: Бзылъфыгъэ-м джанэ-р егъэкъабзэ   Бзылъхугъэ-м джанэ-р егыкӀы
Gloss: woman-ERG shirt-ABS cleans   woman-ERG shirt-ABS laundries
Function: A O VERBtrans   A O VERBtrans
Translation: "The woman cleans/laundries the shirt."

Ergative-Oblique case (-м)

This highly versatile case serves two distinct syntactic macro-roles: the Ergative role (the initiator of an action) and the Oblique role (the target, recipient, or location of an action).[14][15]

The Ergative role

Marks the active agent or possessor.

1. Marking the subject of transitive verbs: The agent deliberately causes the object to undergo a change. 

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: ЛӀым Ӏанэр екъутэ.   ЛӀым мафӀэр егъэункIыфI.
Word: ЛӀы-м Ӏанэ-р екъутэ   ЛӀы-м мафӀэ-р егъэункIыфI
Gloss: man-ERG table-ABS breaks   man-ERG fire-ABS extinguishes
Function: A O VERBtrans   A O VERBtrans
Translation: "The man breaks the table."   "The man extinguishes the fire."

2. Marking Possession: Acts as the possessor in a genitive construction, pairing with a possessive prefix (like и-) on the possessed noun.[16]

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: КӀалэм иунэ дахэ.   ЩӀалэм и унэ дахэщ.
Word: КӀалэ-м и-унэ дахэ   ЩӀалэ-м и-унэ дахэ(щ)
Gloss: boy-ERG his-house beautiful   boy-ERG his-house beautiful
Function: POSS NOUN ADJ   POSS NOUN ADJ
Translation: "The boy's house is beautiful."

The Oblique role

Unlike the Absolutive case, Oblique nouns show no indication of a state change. They act as a Dative (to/for) or Locative (in/at/on) target.

1. Marking the indirect object (Dative function): Used for the object of bivalent intransitive verbs, or the recipient in ditransitive verbs.

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: КӀалэм мыӀэрысэр пшъашъэм реты.   ЩӀалэм мыӀэрысэр пщащэм ирет.
Word: КӀалэ-м мыӀэрысэ-р пшъашъэ-м реты   ЩӀалэ-м мыӀэрысэ-р пщащэ-м ирет
Gloss: boy-ERG apple-ABS girl-OBL gives to   boy-ERG apple-ABS girl-OBL gives to
Function: A O IO VERBditrans   A O IO VERBditrans
Translation: "The boy gives the apple to the girl."

2. Marking Spatial/Temporal Locative: Marks nouns that act as a physical location or timeframe.

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: ЦӀыфыр чэщым мэчъые.   ЦIыхур жэщым мэжей.
Word: ЦӀыфы-р чэщы-м мэчъые   ЦIыху-р жэщы-м мэжей
Gloss: person-ABS night-OBL sleeps   person-ABS night-OBL sleeps
Function: S TIME VERBintrans   S TIME VERBintrans
Translation: "The person sleeps at night."

Instrumental–directional case (-мкӀэ / -кӀэ)

A descriptive case indicating the means, instrument, or direction of an action.[17][18]

1. Marking the instrument or means of action:

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: ЫцӀэр къэлэмымкӀэ къытхыгъ.   ИцIэр къэрэндащымкIэ итхащ.
Word: Ы-цӀэ-р къэлэмы-мкӀэ къытхыгъ   И-цIэ-р къэрэндащы-мкIэ итхащ
Gloss: his-name-ABS pencil-INS he wrote   his-name-ABS pencil-INS he wrote
Function: O INS VERBtrans   O INS VERBtrans
Translation: "He wrote his name with the pencil."

2. Marking the direction of action / general location:

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: Тэ къуаджэмкӀэ тэкӀо.   Дэ къуажэмкӀэ докӀуэ.
Word: Тэ къуаджэ-мкӀэ тэкӀо   Дэ къуажэ-мкӀэ докӀуэ
Gloss: We village-DIR are going   We village-DIR are going
Function: S DIR VERBintrans   S DIR VERBintrans
Translation: "We are going toward the village."

Adverbial case (-эу / -у)

Transforms the noun into an adverbial modifier. It translates closely to the English word "as" or "in the capacity of" (e.g., ЛӀыр профессор-эу хъуащ — "The man became a professor"). It also functions similarly to English relative pronouns ("that", "who", "whom") to subordinate a descriptive clause (e.g., Ady: кӀалэ-у макӀорэ / Kab: щIалэ-у кIуэр — "the boy who goes").[19]

Pro-drop

Circassian is a pro-drop language. The subject and the object pronouns are frequently omitted because verb conjugations reflect number and person.[20]

Pattern Adyghe Example Kabardian Example Meaning
Both mentioned кӀалэм пшъашъэр елъэгъу щӀалэм пщащэр елъэгъу "the boy is seeing the girl"
Object dropped кӀалэм елъэгъу щӀалэм елъэгъу "the boy is seeing him/her/it"
Subject dropped пшъашъэр елъэгъу пщащэр елъэгъу "(s)he is seeing the girl"
Both dropped елъэгъу елъэгъу "(s)he is seeing him/her/it"

Noun and adjective

If a noun is accompanied by an adjective, the adjective is placed after the noun and it takes the noun case suffix instead of the noun itself.[21]

Absolutive case

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: Пшъэшъэ дахэр макӀо.   Пщэщэ дахэр макӀуэ.
Word: Пшъэшъэ дахэ-р макӀо   Пщэщэ дахэ-р макӀуэ
Gloss: girl pretty-ABS is going   girl pretty-ABS is going
Translation: "The pretty girl is going."

Ergative case

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: КӀалэ кӀыхьэм мыер ешхы.   ЩӀалэ кӀыхьэм мыӀэрысэ ешхы.
Word: КӀалэ кӀыхьэ-м мые-р (implied) ешхы   ЩӀалэ кӀыхьэ-м мыӀэрысэ-р (implied) ешхы
Gloss: boy tall-ERG apple-ABS is eating   boy tall-ERG apple-ABS is eating
Translation: "The tall boy is eating the apple."

Instrumental case

  Adyghe   Kabardian
Sentence: Къэлэм папцӀэмкӀэ сэтхэ.   Къэрэндащ папцӀэмкӀэ сотхэ.
Word: Къэлэм папцӀэ-мкӀэ сэтхэ   Къэрэндащ папцӀэ-мкӀэ сотхэ
Gloss: pencil sharp-INS I am writing   pencil sharp-INS I am writing
Translation: "I am writing with the sharp pencil."

Participle

Someone or something that performs a specific verb can be represented with the verb carrying an additional suffix.[22]

  • Adyghe: макӀо (he is going) → кӀорэр (the one who is going); шхэх (they are eating) → шхэхэрэр (the ones who are eating).
  • Kabardian: макӀуэ (he is going) → кӀуэр (the one who is going); машхэх (they are eating) → шхэхэр (the ones who are eating).

Possession

There are two ways to express possession:[23]

  • The prefix и- (jə) refers to the possessed object.
    • Adyghe: икӀалэ ("his/her boy").
    • Kabardian: ищIалэ ("his/her boy").
  • The prefix зи- (zjə) refers to the possessor of the object.
    • Adyghe: зикӀалэ ("(s)he who owns the boy").
    • Kabardian: зищIалэ ("(s)he who owns the boy").

Creating nouns from adjective

An adjective can function as a noun by taking the standard noun case suffixes (absolutive, ergative, etc.).[24]

  • Absolutive: дахэ (pretty) → дахэр (the pretty person); Ady. ашӀу / Kab. ӀэфӀ (tasty) → ашӀухэр / ӀэфӀэр (the tasty ones).
  • Ergative: Ady. чъыӀэ / Kab. щӀыӀэ (cold) → чъыӀэм / щӀыӀэм (in the cold).

Furthermore, any adjective that is measurable or comparable can be turned into an abstract noun by adding the suffix -агъэ (Adyghe) or -агъ(э) (Kabardian).

  • дахэ (pretty) → дахагъэ (beauty).
  • псынкӀэ (fast) → псынкӀагъэ (speed).

Derivation

Composition and suffixation are the most typical ways to form Circassian nouns.[25] There are different ways of composing words, for example: мэзчэ́т (мэз "forest", чэт "chicken", pheasant), псычэ́т (псы "water", чэт "chicken", duck), мэкъумэ́щ "agriculture" (мэкъу "hay", мэщы́ "millet"), шхапӀэ "cafeteria" (шхэн "eat", пӀэ "place").

The following suffixes are highly productive for deriving nouns based on semantic categories:[26]

Meaning Suffix (Adyghe / Kabardian) Adyghe Example Kabardian Example
Manner -кӀэ / -кIэ зекӀуакӀэ "behavior", кӀуакӀэ "gait" зекIуэкIэ "behavior", кIуэкIэ "gait"
Time -гъу / -гъуэ хьадэгъу "death time", къэщэгъу "age of marriage" хьэдэгъуэ "death time", къэшэгъуэ "age of marriage"
Fellow -гъу / -гъу лъэпкъэгъу "kinsman", ныбджэгъу "friend" лъэпкъэгъу "kinsman", ныбжьэгъу "friend"
Place -щ / -щ хьакӀэщ "sitting-room" (from хьакӀэ "guest"), чэмэщ "cowshed" (from чэмы "cow") хьэщIэщ "sitting-room" (from хьэщIэ "guest"), жэмыщ "cowshed" (from жэм "cow")
Location -пӀэ / -пIэ еджапӀэ "school" (from еджэн), уцупӀэ "station" (from уцун "to stop") еджапIэ "school" (from еджэн), увыпIэ "station" (from увын "to stop")
Agent  -кӀо / -кIуэ еджакӀо "student", лэжьакӀо "worker" еджакIуэ "student", лэжьакIуэ "worker"
Tool (Container) -лъ / -лъ щыгъулъ "saltcellar" (from щыгъу "salt"), дэгъалъ "vessel for oil" шыгъулъ "saltcellar" (from шыгъу "salt"), дагъэлъ "vessel for oil"
Tool (Material) -пхъэ / -пхъэ чылапхъэ "seed", гъомылапхъэ "foodstuffs" жылапхъэ "seed", гъэмылапхъэ "foodstuffs"
Horrible -джэ / -джэ кӀуаджэ "bad road" (from кӀон "to go"), теплъаджэ "ugly" кIуэджэ "bad road" (from кIуэджэ "to go"), теплъэджэ "ugly"

References

  1. ↑ Кумахов, М. А. (1964). Морфология адыгских языков. Синхронно-диахронная характеристика. I. Введение, структура слова, словообразование частей речи. Нальчик: Кабардино-Балкарское книжное издательство. pp. 15–18.
  2. ↑ Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. (1966). Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство. pp. 63–64.
  3. ↑ Урыс, Хь. Щ. (2001). Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: Эльбрус. p. 95.
  4. ↑ Kumakhov, Mukhadin; Vamling, Karina (2009). Circassian Clause Structure. Caucasus Studies 1. Malmö: Malmö University. pp. 34–35. ISBN 978-91-7104-083-1.
  5. ↑ Аркадьев, П. М.; et al. (2009). Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка. Москва: РГГУ. pp. 45–48. ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0.
  6. ↑ Matasović, Ranko (2010). A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian) (PDF). Translated by Tena Gnjatović (9th ed.). Zagreb. p. 23.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  7. ↑ Урыс, Хь. Щ. (2001). Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: Эльбрус. pp. 96–97.
  8. ↑ Кумахов, Мухадин; Вамлинг, Карина (2006). Эргативность в черкесских языках / Circassian Clause Structure. Malmö: Malmö University. pp. 20–23. ISBN 91-631-9191-1.
  9. ↑ Matasović, Ranko (2010). A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian) (PDF). Translated by Tena Gnjatović (9th ed.). Zagreb. p. 18.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. ↑ Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. (1966). Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство. pp. 67–70.
  11. ↑ Аркадьев, П. М.; et al. (2009). Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка. Москва: РГГУ. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0.
  12. ↑ Matasović, Ranko (2010). A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian) (PDF). Translated by Tena Gnjatović (9th ed.). Zagreb. p. 19.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ↑ Kumakhov, Mukhadin; Vamling, Karina (2009). Circassian Clause Structure. Caucasus Studies 1. Malmö: Malmö University. p. 41. ISBN 978-91-7104-083-1.
  14. ↑ Matasović, Ranko (2010). A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian) (PDF). Translated by Tena Gnjatović (9th ed.). Zagreb. p. 20-21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ↑ Кумахов, Мухадин; Вамлинг, Карина (2006). Эргативность в черкесских языках / Circassian Clause Structure. Malmö: Malmö University. pp. 35–38. ISBN 91-631-9191-1.
  16. ↑ Урыс, Хь. Щ. (2001). Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: Эльбрус. pp. 112–115.
  17. ↑ Matasović, Ranko (2010). A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian) (PDF). Translated by Tena Gnjatović (9th ed.). Zagreb. p. 21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  18. ↑ Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. (1966). Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство. pp. 75–76.
  19. ↑ Урыс, Хь. Щ. (2001). Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: Эльбрус. pp. 102–104.
  20. ↑ Kumakhov, Mukhadin; Vamling, Karina (2009). Circassian Clause Structure. Caucasus Studies 1. Malmö: Malmö University. pp. 77–78. ISBN 978-91-7104-083-1.
  21. ↑ Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. (1966). Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство. pp. 123–125.
  22. ↑ Аркадьев, П. М.; et al. (2009). Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка. Москва: РГГУ. pp. 85–88. ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0.
  23. ↑ Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. (1966). Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство. pp. 140–142.
  24. ↑ Урыс, Хь. Щ. (2001). Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: Эльбрус. pp. 130–132.
  25. ↑ Кумахов, М. А. (1964). Морфология адыгских языков. Синхронно-диахронная характеристика. I. Введение, структура слова, словообразование частей речи. Нальчик: Кабардино-Балкарское книжное издательство. pp. 210–215.
  26. ↑ Урыс, Хь. Щ. (2001). Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: Эльбрус. pp. 150–155.

Bibliography

  • Аркадьев, П. М.; Ландер, Ю. А.; Летучий, А. Б.; Сумбатова, Н. Р.; Тестелец, Я. Г. Введение. Основные сведения об адыгейском языке в кн.: "Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка" под ред.: П. М. Аркадьев, А. Б. Летучий, Н. Р. Сумбатова, Я. Г. Тестелец. Москва: РГГУ, 2009 (Arkadiev, P. M.; Lander, Yu. A.; Letuchiy, A. B.; Sumbatova, N. R.; Testelets, Ya. G. Introduction. Basic information about Adyghe language in "Aspects of polysyntheticity: studies on Adyghe grammar" edited by: P. M. Arkadiev, A. B. Letuchiy, N. R. Sumbatova, Ya. G. Testelets. Moscow, RGGU, 2009) (in Russian) ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0
  • Kumakhov, Mukhadin; Vamling, Karina. Circassian Clause Structure. Caucasus Studies 1.
  • Jaimoukha, Amjad. Kabardian Verbal Affixes: Collected, arranged and edited.
  • Matasović, Ranko. A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian). Translated from Croatian by Tena Gnjatović. 9th version. Zagreb, 2010.
  • Аркадьев, П. М.; Ландер, Ю. А.; Летучий, А. Б.; Сумбатова, Н. Р.; Тестелец, Я. Г. Введение. Основные сведения об адыгейском языке в кн.: "Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка" под ред.: П. М. Аркадьев, А. Б. Летучий, Н. Р. Сумбатова, Я. Г. Тестелец. Москва: РГГУ, 2009 (Arkadiev, P. M.; Lander, Yu. A.; Letuchiy, A. B.; Sumbatova, N. R.; Testelets, Ya. G.
  • Introduction. Basic information about Adyghe language in "Aspects of polysyntheticity: studies on Adyghe grammar" edited by: P. M. Arkadiev, A. B. Letuchiy, N. R. Sumbatova, Ya. G. Testelets. Moscow, RGGU, 2009) (in Russian) ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0
  • Ranko Matasović, A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian): .
  • Caucasus Studies 1 CIRCASSIAN Clause Structure Mukhadin Kumakhov & Karina Vamling
  • Кумахов, М. А. Морфология адыгских языков. Синхронно-диахронная характеристика. I. Введение, структура слова, словообразование частей речи. Нальчик: Кабардино-Балкарское книжное издательство, 1964.
  • Аркадьев, П. М.; Летучий, А. Б.; Сумбатова, Н. Р.; Тестелец, Я. Г. (ред.). Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка. Москва: Российский государственный гуманитарный университет, 2009. ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0
  • Яковлев, Н. Ф. Краткая грамматика кабардино-черкесского языка. Выпуск I. Синтаксис и морфология. Ворошиловск: Орджоникидзевское краевое издательство, 1938.
  • Яковлев, Н. Ф. Грамматика литературного кабардино-черкесского языка. Москва - Ленинград: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1948.
  • Абдоков, А. И. Фонетические и лексические параллели абхазско-адыгских языков. Нальчик, 1973.
  • Шагиров, А. К. Этимологический словарь адыгских (черкесских) языков. А-Н. Москва: Издательство «Наука», 1977.
  • Урыс, Хь. Щ. Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: «Эльбрус», 2001.
  • Апажев, М. Л. Современный кабардино-черкесский язык. Лексикология, лексикография. Нальчик: «Эльбрус», 2000.
  • Яковлев, Н.; Ашхамаф, Д. Грамматика адыгейского литературного языка. Москва - Ленинград: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1941.
  • Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство, 1966.
  • Kumakhov, Mukhadin & Vamling, Karina. Circassian Clause Structure (Caucasus Studies 1). Malmö: Malmö University, 2009. ISBN 978-91-7104-083-1
  • Кумахов, Мухадин; Вамлинг, Карина. Дополнительные конструкции в кабардинском языке. Lund: Department of Linguistics, Lund University, 1998.
  • Кумахов, Мухадин; Вамлинг, Карина. Эргативность в черкесских языках / Circassian Clause Structure. Malmö: Malmö University, 2006. ISBN 91-631-9191-1
This page is issued from Wikipedia. The text is available under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.