Mountain cacique

Mountain cacique
C. c. leucoramphus in Papallacta, Ecuador
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Icteridae
Genus: Cacicus
Species:
C. chrysonotus
Binomial name
Cacicus chrysonotus
Distribution map of mountain cacique. Green: C. c. leucoramphus and C. c. peruvianus; red: C. c. chrysonotus
Synonyms

See text

Audio
Call of C. c. leucoramphus

The mountain cacique (Cacicus chrysonotus) is a species of bird in the family Icteridae, the oropendolas, New World orioles, and New World blackbirds. It is found in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela.[2]

Taxonomy and systematics

The mountain cacique has a complicated taxonomic history. It was formally described in 1838 with the binomial Cacicus Chrysonotus [sic].[3] In the first half of the twentieth century many authors placed it in genus Archiplanus which was later merged into Cacicus.

As of late 2025 taxonomic systems assign the mountain cacique these three subspecies:[2][4][5][6][7]

However, in the second half of the twentieth century and well into the twenty-first many authors treated chrysonotus as a species, the "southern mountain cacique" and the other two as the "northern mountain cacique".[8][9] The IOC and BirdLife International's Handbook of the Birds of the World kept them separate until 2023.[10][11] The Clements taxonomy recognizes some distinction within the species, calling C. c. chrysonotus the "mountain cacique (Bolivian)" and grouping the other two subspecies as the "mountain cacique (golden-shouldered)".[4] "A formal analysis of vocal differences, including assessment of homologous vocalizations and analysis of intraspecific variation, and assessment of gene flow across contact zones is needed."[6]

Description

Mountain caciques are about 25 to 30 cm (9.8 to 12 in) long. Males weigh about 92 to 98 g (3.2 to 3.5 oz) and females about 64 to 67 g (2.3 to 2.4 oz). The sexes have essentially the same plumage though females are a duller black than males. Adults are almost entirely glossy black. Their lower back and rump are yellow, and some individuals have some to much yellow on the upperwing coverts. They have a blue to bluish white iris, a pale yellow-ivory to greenish ivory bill with a bluish gray base, and black legs and feet. Juveniles have dark brown eyes but are otherwise like adults.[12]

Distribution and habitat

The mountain cacique has a disjunct distribution. Subspecies C. c. leucoramphus is separate from the others and has gaps within its overall range. The other two subspecies' ranges are contiguous or nearly so. Subspecies C. c. leucoramphus is the northernmost. It is found from western Venezuela's extreme southern Táchira[9] south intermittently through all three ranges of the Colombian Andes[13] and essentially continuously along the eastern Andean slope of Ecuador into extreme northern Peru's Piura Department.[12] Subspecies C. c. peruvianus is found in Peru from Amazonas Department south on the eastern Andean slope to Junín Department. C. c. chrysonotus is found from Junín south into central Bolivia.[12][14]

The mountain cacique inhabits humid montane forest in the subtropical to temperate zones.[12][8][14] In elevation it ranges between 1,900 and 2,800 m (6,200 and 9,200 ft) in Venezuela, between 1,700 and 3,500 m (5,600 and 11,500 ft) in Colombia, mostly between 2,000 and 3,100 m (6,600 and 10,200 ft) in Ecuador, and between 1,800 and 3,450 m (5,900 and 11,300 ft) in Peru.[9][13][8][14]

Behavior

Movement

The mountain cacique is not a conventional migrant but some elevational movements are suspected.[12]

Feeding

The mountain cacique's diet is not known in detail but appears to be mostly insects and other arthropods with some nectar and fruits. It feeds mostly in trees and typically finds prey by probing bark and epiphytes. It forages singly, in pairs, and in small flocks and often joins mixed-species feeding flocks.[12][8]

Breeding

The mountain cacique's breeding season has not been fully defined but spans February to July in Colombia and at least October to January in Bolivia. It nests solitarily or in small colonies. Its nest is a bag or purse with a top entrance, made from plant fibers, and hung from a branch. Nothing else is known about the species' breeding biology.[12]

Vocalization

The song of the male mountain cacique is described as "pig-like squeals followed by high-pitched notes and accelerating into a rattle".[12] It is "quite vocal, with a variety of loud calls including a wree-wree-wree-wreeuh, sometimes just a single wree! or kreeuh!, and a repeated more nasal skeeuh".[8]

Status

The IUCN has assessed the mountain cacique as being of Least Concern. It has a very large range; its population size is not known and is believed to be decreasing. No immediate threats have been identified.[1] It is considered fairly common in the southern part of its range but less so in the far north. It occurs in two national parks in Bolivia.[12]

References

  1. 1 2 BirdLife International (2023). "Mountain Cacique Cacicus chrysonotus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2023 e.T22731284A231723575. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T22731284A231723575.en. Retrieved 11 June 2026.
  2. 1 2 Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (April 2026). "Oropendolas, orioles, blackbirds". IOC World Bird List. v 15.2. Retrieved 30 May 2026.
  3. ↑ d'Orbigny, Alcide; de Lafresnaye, Frédéric (1838). "Synopsis Avium". Magasin de zoologie. (in Latin). 8. Lequien fils: 3. Retrieved June 11, 2026.
  4. 1 2 Clements, J. F., P. C. Rasmussen, T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, J. A. Gerbracht, D. Lepage, A. Spencer, S. M. Billerman, B. L. Sullivan, M. Smith, and C. L. Wood. 2025. The eBird/Clements checklist of Birds of the World: v2025. Downloaded from https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/ retrieved November 3, 2025
  5. ↑ HBW and BirdLife International (2025). Handbook of the Birds of the World and BirdLife International digital checklist of the birds of the world. Version 10. Available at: https://datazone.birdlife.org/about-our-science/taxonomy#birdlife-s-taxonomic-checklist retrieved October 12, 2025
  6. 1 2 AviList Core Team (2025). "AviList: The Global Avian Checklist, v2025". Retrieved June 11, 2025.
  7. ↑ Remsen, J. V., Jr., J. I. Areta, E. Bonaccorso, S. Claramunt, D. F. Lane, L, N. Naka, M. B. Robbins, F. G. Stiles, and K. J. Zimmer. Version 27 February 2026. A classification of the bird species of South America. South American Classification Committee associated with the International Ornithologists' Union. https://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.htm retrieved February 28, 2026
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Ridgely, Robert S.; Greenfield, Paul J. (2001). The Birds of Ecuador: Field Guide. Vol. II. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 695. ISBN 978-0-8014-8721-7.
  9. 1 2 3 Hilty, Steven L. (2003). Birds of Venezuela (second ed.). Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 827.
  10. ↑ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (July 2023). "IOC World Bird List". v 13.2. Retrieved November 7, 2023.
  11. ↑ HBW and BirdLife International (2023). Handbook of the Birds of the World and BirdLife International digital checklist of the birds of the world. Version 8. Available at: https://datazone.birdlife.org/about-our-science/taxonomy retrieved January 5, 2024
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Fraga, R. (2022). Mountain Cacique (Cacicus chrysonotus), version 1.1. In Birds of the World (B. K. Keeney, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.moucac1.01.1 retrieved June 11, 2026
  13. 1 2 McMullan, Miles; Donegan, Thomas M.; Quevedo, Alonso (2010). Field Guide to the Birds of Colombia. Bogotá: Fundación ProAves. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-9827615-0-2.
  14. 1 2 3 Schulenberg, T.S.; Stotz, D.F.; Lane, D.F.; O'Neill, J.P.; Parker, T.A. III (2010). Birds of Peru. Princeton Field Guides (revised and updated ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 622. ISBN 978-0691130231.
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