Modern Chinese loanwords in Japanese

This article is about loanwords borrowed from modern Chinese varieties into Japanese. For the mainly older Chinese-derived stratum read with Sino-Japanese pronunciations, see Sino-Japanese vocabulary. For loans in the opposite direction, see Japanese loanwords in Chinese.

Modern Chinese loanwords in Japanese are words borrowed into the Japanese language from Chinese varieties in the modern period. They generally reflect a relatively recent pronunciation in the source variety and are commonly written in katakana, although some retain a spelling in kanji. The National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics (NINJAL) classifies words introduced from China in the modern period as gairaigo (foreign loanwords); examples in its corpus documentation include クーニャン (kūnyan), シューマイ (shūmai), and メンツ (mentsu).

Classification and scope

Japanese vocabulary is conventionally divided by origin into native Japanese words (wago), Sino-Japanese vocabulary (kango), foreign loanwords (gairaigo), and hybrids. Kango principally includes older loans from Chinese that are read with Sino-Japanese pronunciations, together with wasei-kango coined in Japan from Chinese-derived morphemes. By contrast, words borrowed from spoken Chinese varieties in the modern period are generally classified as gairaigo. The distinction depends on the period and form of borrowing, rather than simply on whether a word can be written in Chinese characters.

This article covers common nouns borrowed from Mandarin, Cantonese, Hokkien and other Chinese varieties. Japanese renderings of personal and place names are treated as the transcription of proper nouns. Go-on, Kan-on and Tō-on belong to the historical Sino-Japanese reading traditions and fall outside the scope of the modern loans discussed here. The movement of vocabulary in the opposite direction is covered by Japanese loanwords in Chinese.

Chinese and Japanese have been in contact over a long period, and the dates, places and media of transmission differ from word to word. Modern loans are particularly common in food, tea culture, games and everyday social life. A word may have been taken directly from a regional Chinese variety or transmitted through immigrant communities, restaurants and publications. Etymologies consequently require word-specific dictionary evidence and historical documentation.

Transmission and establishment

Dictionary evidence gives different early dates for widely used food terms. Wantan appears in a 1906 household encyclopedia, pītan in a 1917 example, shūmai in a 1928 terminology dictionary, rāmen in a 1930 dictionary and a 1931 literary work, chāhan in a 1939 example, and chāshū in a 1946 example.

A 2021 study examined the magazines Ryōri no tomo from 1914 to 1943 and Kyō no Ryōri from 1958 to 2019. Before the Second World War, recipes often placed a Chinese dish name first and supplied a reading intended to approximate Chinese. After the war, parallel Chinese names became less frequent and established Japanese forms became primary. Prewar reading annotations included Mandarin, Cantonese and Wu Chinese, whereas postwar forms were increasingly concentrated on Mandarin.

In Kyō no Ryōri, chāhan, gyōza, wantan and shūmai recur as common dish names from the 1970s onward. Chāhan and gyōza in particular remain among the most frequent names after the 1980s. The study describes this development as the gradual grouping and localization of foods from different parts of China as Japanese-style “Chinese cuisine”. Some loans have also developed a broader or distinct referent in Japanese; ramen, for example, became a culinary category of its own in Japan.

Examples

The following table is limited to words whose Chinese origin is explicitly identified by a dictionary or by NINJAL. A kanji spelling does not imply that the word is pronounced with its regular Sino-Japanese reading.

Field	Japanese form	Kanji spelling	Source and notes
Food and condiments	ワンタン (wantan)	雲呑	Listed as a Chinese loan; recorded in a 1906 household encyclopedia.
	ピータン (pītan)	皮蛋	Chinese loan with a dictionary example dated 1917.
	シューマイ (shūmai)	焼売	Chinese loan recorded in a 1928 terminology dictionary.
	ラーメン (rāmen)	拉麺	Chinese loan that developed into a distinct culinary category in Japan.
	チャーハン (chāhan)	炒飯	Chinese loan with a dictionary example dated 1939.
	チャーシュー (chāshū)	叉焼	Chinese loan with a dictionary example dated 1946.
	ギョーザ (gyōza)	餃子	Its pronunciation is traced to a reading from Shandong.
	ビーフン (bīfun)	米粉	The form is associated with a Hokkien reading used in Taiwan.
	ザーサイ (zāsai)	搾菜	A Chinese loan for preserved swollen-stem mustard.
	トウバンジャン (tōbanjan)	豆板醤	A fermented paste made with broad beans, chili peppers and salt.
	チンジャオロース (chinjao rōsu)	青椒肉絲	Entered as the name of a Chinese dish.
	ホイコーロー (hoikōrō)	回鍋肉	Entered as the name of a Sichuan dish.
	バンバンジー (banbanjī)	棒棒鶏	Entered as the name of a Sichuan dish.
Tea culture	ヤムチャ (yamucha)	飲茶	A Cantonese-derived term for the practice of drinking tea with dim sum.
	ウーロン茶 (ūron-cha)	烏龍茶	A Chinese tea name written with a mixture of katakana and kanji.
Game	マージャン (mājan)	麻雀	The name of a game introduced from China.
Everyday and cultural terms	メンツ (mentsu), クーニャン (kūnyan)	面子, 姑娘	NINJAL lists both as modern foreign loans from China.
	カンフー (kanfū)	功夫	A Chinese loan used in Japanese mainly for Chinese martial arts.

Phonological and orthographic adaptation

Modern Chinese loans are accommodated to Japanese phonemes and moraic structure. Common processes in Japanese loanword phonology include approximating source consonants and vowels with Japanese segments, adding vowels where the source has syllable structures that Japanese does not permit, and using long vowels, the moraic nasal and geminates.

Mandarin, Cantonese and Hokkien have different consonant systems, none of which maps directly onto Japanese. Dictionaries associate gyōza with a Shandong reading and bīfun with Taiwanese Hokkien. Historical cooking texts also show Mandarin, Cantonese and Wu readings side by side. The source variety and period of transmission therefore need to be established separately for each word; a correspondence table based only on present-day Standard Chinese is not an account of all established loans.

The katakana forms are arranged in Japanese morae. Shūmai, gyōza, bīfun, and ūron-cha use the long-vowel mark ー, while wantan and mentsu use the moraic nasal ン. Japan's Agency for Cultural Affairs prescribes ン for the moraic nasal, small ッ for a geminate, and in principle ー for long vowels in foreign words. Chinese tones are not represented by katakana letters; after borrowing, the words participate in Japanese accent and prosodic patterns.

A single word may be written in katakana, kanji, or a mixture of both, as in ピータン／皮蛋, ギョーザ／餃子, and ウーロン茶／烏龍茶. Katakana records an established Japanese loan form, while the kanji spelling is stored separately and does not necessarily determine the pronunciation.

Etymological cautions

Etymological analysis distinguishes the source variety, place or medium of transmission, and earliest Japanese attestations. A poor match with present-day Standard Chinese does not exclude borrowing from another Chinese variety or through an intermediary. Conversely, phonetic resemblance alone does not demonstrate a borrowing relationship. The dictionary accounts of gyōza and bīfun illustrate word-specific links to regional forms rather than to modern Standard Chinese.

Sources also differ in granularity. NINJAL's origin labels can identify a word as a modern loan from China, while general dictionaries often give only “Chinese”; only some entries specify Shandong, Taiwanese Hokkien or another source. In the absence of more specific evidence, a regional origin cannot safely be inferred from surface similarity alone.

See also

• Gairaigo
• Sino-Japanese vocabulary
• Sino-Japanese readings
• Go-on
• Kan-on
• Tō-on
• Japanese loanwords in Chinese
• Wasei-kango

Further reading

• 呉岳樺 (2003). "日本語における中国語からの外来語―近代・現代音を中心に" [Chinese loanwords in Japanese, focusing on modern and contemporary pronunciations]. 國語學 (in Japanese). 54 (2): 115.