List of large Holocene volcanic eruptions

Satellite images of the 15 January 2022 eruption of Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai

This is a list of volcanoes that have had large explosive eruptions during the Holocene (since about 11,650 years Before Present), with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 5 or higher, or a plume height of at least 30 km. To date, there have been no eruptions with a confirmed VEI of 8 in the Holocene; and only a few VEI-7 eruptions are thought to have occurred during this time: the most recent was the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora.

Common Era (CE)

VEI Volcano/complex Volcanic arc/belt,
subregion, or hotspot		 Material volume (km3) Date Tephra or eruption name
Bulk DRE
6 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai Tonga-Kermadec Islands volcanic arc 14[1] 7.1[2] January 15, 2022 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption and tsunami
5 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle Andean Volcanic Belt 0.76–1.26[3] Unknown June 4, 2011 2011–2012 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle eruption
5 Mount Hudson Andean Volcanic Belt 4.3–7.6[4] 1.6–2.7[5] August 8, 1991
6 Mount Pinatubo[6] Luzon Volcanic Arc 10.4-11.0 5.3 June 15, 1991 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
5 El Chichón[6] Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc 2.2 1.1[7] April 4, 1982 Tephra unit A
5 Mount St. Helens[6] Cascade Volcanic Arc 1.1[8] 0.5[9] May 18, 1980 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens
5 Mount Agung Sunda Arc, Bali 1 Unknown March 17, 1963
5 Bezymianny[a] Kamchatka 1.9 Unknown March 30, 1956
5 Kharimkotan Kuril Islands 1 Unknown 1933
5 Quizapú Andean Volcanic Belt 9.5 7–10[12] April 10–21, 1932
5 Submarine volcano NNE of Iriomote Island Japan 1 Unknown 1924-10-31
6 Novarupta[6] SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc 28–30 13–15 June 6, 1912
5 Ksudach Kamchatka 1.75 Unknown 1907-03-28
6 Santa María[6] Central America Volcanic Arc, Guatemala 10.7–11.4 6.4[13] October 24, 1902 1902 eruption of Santa María
5 Mount Tarawera Taupō Volcanic Zone 2 Unknown June 10–15, 1886 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera
6 Krakatoa[6] Sunda Arc 18–25 10-12.5 August 26, 1883 1883 eruption of Krakatoa
5 Askja Iceland 1.83 Unknown March 28, 1875
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka 2 Unknown February 18, 1854
5 Mount Agung Sunda Arc, Bali 1 Unknown 1843
5 Cosigüina Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua 4.25 Unknown January 20, 1835
5-6 Zavaritski Caldera[14] Kuril Islands Unknown Unknown 1831
5 Mount Galunggung Sunda Arc, Java 2 Unknown October 8, 1822
7 Mount Tambora[6] Sunda Arc, Sumbawa 150 - 175 37–50[15] April 10, 1815 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora
6? Between Indonesia and Tonga[b] Unknown Unknown Unknown c.1808 Undocumented 1808 eruption[17]
5 Mount St. Helens Cascade Volcanic Arc 1.5 Unknown c.1800 T (Goat Rocks)
5 Katla Iceland 1 Unknown 1755-10-17
5 Taal volcano Philippines >1 [18] Unknown 1754 1754 eruption of Taal Volcano
5 Mount Tarumae Hokkaidō 4 Unknown 1739-08-18 Ta-a
5 Katla Iceland 1 Unknown 1721-05-11
5 Mount Fuji Honshū 1.7 Unknown December 16, 1707 Hōei eruption of Mount Fuji
5 Tangkoko Sangihe Volcanic Arc 1 Unknown 1680
5 Mount Gamkonora Halmahera Volcanic Arc 1 Unknown 1673-05-20
5 Mount Tarumae Hokkaidō 2.8 Unknown 1667-09-24 Ta-b
5 Mount Usu Hokkaidō 2.78 Unknown 1663-08-16
6 Long Island, PNG Bismarck Volcanic Arc 21 12[19] c.1660 Tibito tephra
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka ≥ 2 Unknown 1652 CE ±11 SH1
5 Mount Melibengoy[20] Mindanao, Philippines 1 Unknown December 26, 1640
5 Komagatake Hokkaidō 2.9 Unknown 1640-07-31 Ko-d
5 Mount Vesuvius Campanian volcanic arc 1.1 Unknown 1631-12-16
5 Furnas São Miguel Island, Azores 2.1 Unknown 1630-09-03
5 Katla Iceland 1 Unknown 1625-09-02
6 Huaynaputina Andes, Central Volcanic Zone 11-14 4.6-4.95 February 19, 1600
5 Raung Sunda Arc, Java 1 Unknown 1593 CE
5 KeludSunda Arc, Java 1 Unknown c.1586
6 Billy Mitchell Bougainville & Solomon Is. 13.5 Unknown c.1580 BM2
5 Água de Pau São Miguel Island, Azores 1.3 Unknown 1563-06-28 / 1563-07-26
5 Mount St. Helens Cascade Volcanic Arc 1.5 Unknown c.1482 We (Kalama)
5 Mount St. Helens Cascade Volcanic Arc 7.7 Unknown c.1480 Wn (Kalama)
6 Bárðarbunga Iceland 10 Unknown c.1477 Veidivatnahraun
7? Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown c.1458 Undocumented 1458 eruption[21][22][23]
7? Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown 1452/1453 Undocumented 1452/1453 eruption[21][22]
6 Öræfajökull Iceland 10 Unknown June 5, 1362
6 Quilotoa Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone 21 Unknown c.1280
5 Katla Iceland 1 1262 CE
7 Mount Samalas Lombok Island 81–92 33–40[24] c.1257 1257 Samalas eruption[c]
5 Mount Asama Honshū 1.3 Unknown August 29, 1108 Tennin eruption (1108)
5 Hekla Iceland 1.2 Unknown c.1104 H1 tephra
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka ≥ 2 1034 CE ±11 SH2
5 Billy Mitchell Bougainville & Solomon Is. 7 1030 CE BM1
6 Baekdu Mountain[6] Balhae (China – North Korea border) 40–98 10–64[26] c.946 Millennium eruption
Baegdusan-Tomakomai Tephra
5 Towada[27] Honshū 6.54 Unknown c.915 Eruption episode A
6 Mount Churchill eastern Alaska 50 847 CE ±1 WRAe
6 Rabaul Bismarck Volcanic Arc 24 Unknown c.683 Rabaul Pyroclastics
6 Dakataua Bismarck Volcanic Arc 10 653 CE ±18 Dk
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka ≥ 2 650 CE ±40 SH3
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka ≥ 2 600 CE
5 Mount Haruna Honshū 1.6 550 CE ±10 Futatsudake-Ikaho eruption
6-7 Unknown source Unknown[d] Unknown Unknown c.536 Volcanic winter of 536
5 Mount Vesuvius Campanian volcanic arc 1.2 Unknown c.472 Pollena
6 Lake Ilopango Central America Volcanic Arc, El Salvador 37–82 44–95[28][29] c.430 Tierra Blanca Joven eruption
5 Akutan Aleutian Arc 1 340 Akutan tephra
7 Taupō Volcano[6] Taupō Volcanic Zone 110 Unknown c.232[e] Hatepe eruption
5 Masaya[6] Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua 6.6 150 Masaya Tuff
5 Mount Vesuvius Campanian volcanic arc 3.25 Unknown c.79[f] Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
6 Ambrym Vanuatu 70 Unknown c.50 Ambrym Pyroclastic Series

Before Common Era (BCE)

VEI Volcano/complex Volcanic arc/belt,
subregion, or hotspot		 Material volume (km3) Date Age
(ka)[30]		 Tephra or eruption name
Bulk DRE
6 Okmok Caldera Umnak, Aleutian Arc 25+[31] 15+[32] 43 BCE 2 Okmok II
5 Etna Campanian volcanic arc 1 Unknown 122 BCE 2.1 S flank, summit (Cratere del Piano caldera)
6 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 28.8 Unknown 250 BCE 2.2 Fleetwood
5 Mount St. Helens Cascade Volcanic Arc 1.2 Unknown 530 BCE 2.5 Ps/Pu (Pine Creek)
5 Mount Tarumae Hokkaidō 3.3 550 BCE Ta-c
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka 1 780 BCE SH5
5 Mount Fuji Honshū 1 930 BCE Upper SE flank, Tephra layer Zu
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka > 1 950 BCE
6 Mount Pinatubo Luzon Volcanic Arc 12.5 Unknown 1050 BCE 3 Maraunot eruptive period
5 Cuicocha[33] Andean Volcanic Belt ~ 5 ~1100 BCE
5 Hekla Iceland 7.5 1100 BCE ±50 H3 tephra
5 Mount Tarawera Taupō Volcanic Zone 8 1310 BCE ±12 Kaharoa eruption
5 Mount Fuji Honshū 1 1350 BCE Tephra layer Os
5 Avachinsky Kamchatka 1.75 Unknown 1350 BCE 3.3 Tephra layer IIAV3
6 Taupō Volcano Taupō Volcanic Zone 17 Unknown 1460 BCE 3.4 Waimihia eruption
5 Avachinsky Kamchatka ≥ 3.6 Unknown 1500 BCE 3.5 Tephra layer AV1
5 Hayes Volcano SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc 8.1 1550 BCE Hayes Tephra set H
7 Youngest Caldera, Santorini South Aegean Volcanic Arc 34.5[34] 1610 BCE 3.6 Minoan eruption
6 Mount St. Helens Cascade Volcanic Arc 15.3 Unknown 1860 BCE 3.8 Yn (Smith Creek)
6 Mount Hudson Andes, Southern Volcanic Zone 12 Unknown 1890 BCE 3.8
5 Mount Dana SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc 1 1890 BCE 1890 BCE eruption
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka > 1 2000 BCE SHsp
6-7 Deception Island[35] South Shetland Islands Unknown 30-60 1960 BCE 4 Outer Coast Tuff
6 Long Island, PNG Bismarck Volcanic Arc > 10 Unknown 2040 BCE 4 biliau beds
5 Rungwe Great Rift Valley, Tanzania 2.2 2050 BCE Rungwe pumice
5 Nishiyama, Hachijō-jima Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc 1.2 2050 BCE Mitsune-7 scoria
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka > 1 2100 BCE SHsp
7 Paektu Mountain Balhae (China – North Korea border) Unknown Unknown 2264 BCE? 4.2–5.1[36] Tianwenfeng eruption
7 Cerro Blanco (Argentina) Andes, Central Volcanic Zone 172 8–83[37] 2300 BCE 4.3
5 Hekla Iceland 5.6 2310 BCE ±20 H4 tephra
5 Mount St. Helens Cascade Volcanic Arc 1.2 Unknown 2340 BCE 4.3 Yb (Smith Creek)
5 Piton de la Fournaise Réunion 1.8 2700 BCE Bellecombe Ash Member
5 Ilyinsky Kamchatka 1.3 2850 BCE ZLT-tephra; IL-tephra
5 Água de Pau São Miguel Island, Azores 5.4 2990 BCE Fogo A
5 Lake Numazawa[27] Honshū 4.71 3400 BCE
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka ≥ 2 3500 BCE
6 Mount Pinatubo Luzon Volcanic Arc 12? Unknown 3550 BCE 5.5 Crow Valley eruptive period
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka ≥ 2 3650 BCE
5 Kaguyak SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc 3.9 3850 BCE Caldera formation
6 Masaya Volcano Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua 14.8 Unknown 4050 BCE 6
5 Towada Honshū 9.18 4150 BCE eruption episode C
5 Apoyeque Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua 1.9 4160 BCE ±30 Laguna Xiloá
5 Avachinsky Kamchatka ≥ 4 Unknown 4340 BCE 6.3 Tephra layer IAv12; AV4
6-7 Macauley Island Kermadec Islands ⩽ 100 Unknown 4360 BCE 6.3
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka ≥ 2 4400 BCE
5 Komagatake Hokkaidō 3 4600 BCE ±50 Ko-g
5 Nishiyama, Hachijō-jima Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc 1.2 4650 BCE Mitsune-5 scoria
6 Mount Hudson Andes, Southern Volcanic Zone 18 Unknown 4750 BCE 6.7
5 Ksudach Kamchatka 7.5 4900 BCE KS2
5 Tavui Bismarck Volcanic Arc 5.75 4946 BCE ±40 Raluan Pyroclastics
5 Hekla Iceland 1.7 5150 BCE H5 tephra
5 Ksudach Kamchatka 3 5200 BCE KS3
7 Taal Volcano Luzon Volcanic Arc 144[38] 90[38] 5380 ± 70 yr BCE 5.5 Pasong Fluidal Juvenile Bomb-Rich Ignimbrite Formation
5 Ichinsky Kamchatka 2.5 5400 BCE
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka 1.2 5500 BCE
6 Lake Mashū Hokkaidō 18.6 Unknown 5550 BCE 7.5 Ma-f/g/h/i/j
6 Khangar Kamchatka 15 Unknown 5700 BCE 7.7 KHG tephra
5 Avachinsky Kamchatka 9 Unknown 5980 BCE 7.9 Tephra layer IAv2
6 Menengai East African Rift 70 Unknown 6050 BCE 8
5 Mount Tarawera Taupō Volcanic Zone 1.2 6060 BCE ±50 Haroharo (Te Horoa & other domes)
5 Makushin Volcano Unalaska, Aleutian Arc 7.5 6100 BCE ±50
6 Karkar Island Bismarck Volcanic Arc 20 Unknown 6318 BCE 8.3 Wadau deposit
5 Kizimen Kamchatka 4.9 6400 BCE ±50 KZII
6 Karymsky Kamchatka 14.5 Unknown 6600 BCE 8.6 Tephra layer KRM
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka 1 6800 BCE
5 Mount Tarumae Hokkaidō 1.9 6950 BCE Ta-d
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka ≥ 2 7150 BCE
5 Towada Honshū 2.5 7250 BCE eruption episode E
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka ≥ 1 7300 BCE
6 Mount Pinatubo Luzon Volcanic Arc ⩾10 Unknown 7460 BCE 9.4 Tayawan caldera, Pasbul eruptive period
5 Mount Tarawera Taupō Volcanic Zone 7560 BCE ±18 Lake Rotoma
6 Água de Pau São Miguel Island, Azores 11.5 Unknown 8000 BCE 10 Inner Caldera Formation
7 Semisopochnoi Island Aleutian Arc 120 Unknown 8000 BCE 10
5 Kizimen Kamchatka 4 8050 BCE KZI
6 Grímsvötn Iceland 15 Unknown 8230 BCE 10.2 Saksunarvatn tephra
5 Lake Ngozi Great Rift Valley, Tanzania 7 8250 BCE Kitulo pumice
5 Towada Honshū 1.3 8250 BCE eruption episode F
6 Longonot Great Rift Valley, Kenya 50 Unknown 8910 BCE 10.9
5 Mount Tongariro Taupō Volcanic Zone 1 9350 BCE
5 Mount Tongariro Taupō Volcanic Zone 1 9450 BCE Poutu Lapilli (Mangamate)
5 Mount Tongariro Taupō Volcanic Zone 1 9650 BCE

Exact year unknown

VEI Volcano/complex Volcanic arc/belt,
subregion, or hotspot		 Material volume bulk
(km3)		 Date
(earliest est.)		 Date
(latest est.)		 Tephra or eruption name
5 Sakurajima Kyūshū 1 c.1471 c.1476
5 Mount Pinatubo Luzon Volcanic Arc 1 c.1400 c.1500 Buag eruptive period
5 El Chichón Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc 2.8 c.1260 c.1460
5 Ubinas Andes, Central Volcanic Zone 2.8 c.1000 c.1164
5 Lake Mashū Hokkaidō 4.6 c.980 c.1180 Ma-b
5 Puyehue Andean Volcanic Belt 4.32 c.785 c.935 MH tephra
6 Ceboruco Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt 10.95 c.730 c.1130 Jala Pumice
6 Taal Volcano Luzon Volcanic Arc, Philippines 46[38] 3000 BCE c. 1000 Buco Ignimbrite and Tuff Formation
5 El Chichón Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc > 1 c.680 c.880 tephra unit D
6 Pago Bismarck Volcanic Arc 20 c.635 c.785 Witori-Galilo tephra
5 Pago Bismarck Volcanic Arc 6 c.600 c.780 Witori-Kimbe 4 tephra
5 Opala Kamchatka 3.7 c.560 c.660 Baranii Amphitheatre crater
5 Pago Bismarck Volcanic Arc 6 c.210 c.410 Witori-Kimbe 3 tephra
6 Mount Churchill eastern Alaska 10 c.145 c.345 WRAn
6 Ksudach Kamchatka 18.5 c.140 c.340 KS1
5 Furnas São Miguel Island, Azores 1.54 c. 20 BCE c.180 Tephra layer C
6 Apoyeque Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua 18 c. 150 BCE c. 50
5 Masaya[6] Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua 3.4 270 BCE 70 BCE Masaya Tuff
5 Popocatépetl Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt 3.2 500 BCE c.100 I.A1 Yellow Pumice
5 Mount Meager massif Garibaldi Volcanic Belt ⩾ 1 610 BCE 210 BCE Bridge River eruption
5 Mount Tongariro Taupō Volcanic Zone 1.2 750 BCE 350 BCE
5 Khodutka Kamchatka 1.25 1030 BCE 830 BCE KHD tephra
5 Yantarni Volcano SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc 1 1300 BCE 300 BCE
6 Pago Bismarck Volcanic Arc 30 1530 BCE 1210 BCE Witori-Kimbe 2 tephra
5 Etna Campanian volcanic arc 1 1550 BCE 1450 BCE
6 Mount Aniakchak SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc 50 1636 BCE 1446 BCE Aniakch
5 Mount St. Helens Cascade Volcanic Arc 3.5 1870 BCE 1670 BCE Ye (Smith Creek) ak II
6 Mount Vesuvius Campanian volcanic arc 2.0 2000 BCE 1500 BCE Avellino eruption
5 Villarrica Andean Volcanic Belt 3.3 2010 BCE 1610 BCE Pucón Ignimbrite
6 Black Peak SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc 30 2050 BCE 1750 BCE
5 El Chichón Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc 2 2130 BCE 1930 BCE Unit K (SI; Espindola 2000) Unit E (Macias 1997)
5 Mount Galunggung Sunda Arc, Java 1 2400 BCE 2100 BCE
6 Mount Veniaminof SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc > 50 2455 BCE 2153 BCE V2
5 Phlegraean Fields Campanian volcanic arc 1.8 2650 BCE 1650 BCE Agnano Monte Spina
5 Lake Ikeda Kyūshū 2.3 2765 BCE 2615 BCE Ikeda-ko caldera, Tephra layer Ikp
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka > 1 2920 BCE 2320 BCE SHdv
6 Taal Volcano Luzon Volcanic Arc, Philippines 46[38] unknown ≤ 3000 BCE Balagbag Ignimbrite Formation
5-6 Fisher Caldera Unimak, Aleutian Arc 5.5 (DRE) 3245 BCE 3095 BCE Turquoise Cone
5 Chaitén Andean Volcanic Belt 4.7 3320 BCE 2880 BCE Cha2/Mic2 tephra
5 Avachinsky Kamchatka 1.5 3350 BCE 3050 BCE Tephra layer IAv20; AV3
5 Mount Tarawera Taupō Volcanic Zone 6 3621 BCE 3431 BCE Whakatane tephra
5 Popocatépetl Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt ⩾ 5 4000 BCE 3400 BCE I.A1 Yellow Pumice
5 Apoyeque Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua 1 4050 BCE 1050 BCE W Chiltepe Peninsula, Mateare Tephra
6 Pago Bismarck Volcanic Arc 10 4210 BCE 3790 BCE Witori-Kimbe 1 tephra
5 Hekla Iceland 1 4210 BCE 4010 BCE Hekla Ö tephra
5 Mayor Island / Tūhua Taupō Volcanic Zone 1.6 5260 BCE 4860 BCE Taratimi Bay
5 Puyehue Andean Volcanic Belt 1.66 5230 BCE 4930 BCE PU-2 tephra
7 Kikai Caldera Ryukyu Islands 332–457[g] 5353 BCE 5215 BCE Akahoya eruption
7 Crater Lake
(as Mount Mazama)		 Cascade Volcanic Arc 120[h] 5832 BCE 5734 BCE Mazama Tephra
5-6 Crater Lake Cascade Volcanic Arc > 9 5950 BCE 5850 BCE Lower Pumice, Llao Rock
6 Mount Aniakchak Aleutian Arc 30 7550 BCE 5050 BCE Aniakchak I
6 Tao-Rusyr Caldera Onekotan, Kuril Islands 55 6438 BCE 6258 BCE
7 Kurile Lake Kamchatka 155 6462 BCE 6416 BCE Ilinsky eruption
6 Taal Volcano Luzon Volcanic Arc, Philippines 72[38] unknown Before 6680 ± 310 BCE[38] Indang Banded Fluidal Juvenile Bomb Ignimbrite Formation
5 Pico de Orizaba Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt 1 6860 BCE 6560 BCE Upper Citlaltépetl ignimbrite
5-6 Mount Vesuvius Campanian volcanic arc 5.1 7040 BCE 6840 BCE Mercato eruption
6 Okmok Caldera Umnak, Aleutian Arc 75 8456 BCE 6096 BCE Okmok I
6 Morne Trois Pitons Dominica, Lesser Antilles island arc 58 7535 BCE 7347 BCE PPR3 - Link fall
5 Shiveluch Kamchatka ≥ 2 7550 BCE 7250 BCE
5 Calbuco Southern Chile & Argentina 1 7585 BCE 5935 BCE Ca8 tephra layer
5 Chaitén Andean Volcanic Belt 3.54 7950 BCE 7550 BCE Cha1 tephra
5 Roundtop Volcano Unimak, Aleutian Arc 7 8100 BCE 7100 BCE
6 Ulleung South Korea 28.5 8305 BCE[41] 8227 BCE[41] Ulleungdo-Oki tephra
5 Taupō Volcano Taupō Volcanic Zone 4.8 8330 BCE 7930 BCE Unit E (Opepe Tephra)
5 Calbuco Southern Chile & Argentina 1 8615 BCE 8305 BCE Ca1 tephra layer
6 Lvinaya Past Kuril Islands 75 8756 BCE 8614 BCE
6 Aira Kyūshū 12 9050 BCE 7050 BCE Wakamiko Caldera
5 Askja Iceland 3.45 9110 BCE 8710 BCE Dyngjufjöll Tephra
7 Fisher Caldera Unimak, Aleutian Arc 142[i] 9114 BCE 8330 BCE Fisher Tuff
5 Taupō Volcano Taupō Volcanic Zone 1 9315 BCE 9165 BCE 4 km W of Te Kohaiakahu Point, Unit C (Poronui)
5 Taupō Volcano Taupō Volcanic Zone 1.4 9660 BCE 9260 BCE
5 Hijiori Honshū 2.3 10050 BCE 9050 BCE Obanazawa Pumice

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Similar in scale to Mount St. Helens in 1980.[10][11]
  2. ↑ At least three different volcanic eruptions contributed to the sulfate spike[16]
  3. ↑ May have triggered the Little Ice Age[25]
  4. ↑ Radical and far-ranging global effects. At least three separate eruptions contributed to the sulfate spike and climatic impact.
  5. ↑ Sources give either ±5 or ±10
  6. ↑ First definite record of a volcanic eruption written by Pliny the Younger in 79 AD.
  7. ↑ 70–80 DRE[39]
  8. ↑ 61 DRE[40]
  9. ↑ 10–100 DRE[42]

References

  1. ↑ "Tonga eruption update" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-03-27.
  2. ↑ Cronin, Shane (12 January 2023). "A year on, we know why the Tongan eruption was so violent. It's a wake-up call to watch other submarine volcanoes". The Conversation. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
  3. ↑ Pistolesi, Marco; Cioni, Raffaello; Bonadonna, Costanza; Elissondo, Manuela; Baumann, Valerie; Bertagnini, Antonella; Chiari, Laura; Gonzales, Rafael; Rosi, Mauro; Francalanci, Lorella (2015-01-22). "Complex dynamics of small-moderate volcanic events: the example of the 2011 rhyolitic Cordón Caulle eruption, Chile". Bulletin of Volcanology. 77 (1): 3. Bibcode:2015BVol...77....3P. doi:10.1007/s00445-014-0898-3. hdl:11568/800962. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 128420641.
  4. ↑ Kratzmann, David, et al. (2009) "Compositional variations and magma mixing in the 1991 eruptions of Hudson volcano, Chile" Bulletin of Volcanology 71(4): pp. 419–439, p.419, doi:10.1007/s00445-008-0234-x
  5. ↑ Scasso, Roberto A.; Corbella, Hugo; Tiberi, Pedro (1994-05-01). "Sedimentological analysis of the tephra from the 12–15 August 1991 eruption of Hudson volcano". Bulletin of Volcanology. 56 (2): 121–132. Bibcode:1994BVol...56..121S. doi:10.1007/BF00304107. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 129044198.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–259. Bibcode:2003PrPG...27..230O. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra. S2CID 131663534.
  7. ↑ Carey, Steven; Sigurdsson, Haraldur (1986-06-01). "The 1982 eruptions of El Chichon volcano, Mexico (2): Observations and numerical modelling of tephra-fall distribution". Bulletin of Volcanology. 48 (2): 127–141. Bibcode:1986BVol...48..127C. doi:10.1007/BF01046547. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 128515240.
  8. ↑ "Mount St. Helens – From the 1980 eruption to 2000". United States Geological Survey. 2000. Fact Sheet 036-00. Retrieved 2006-11-12.
  9. ↑ Carey, S.; Gardner, J.; Sigurdsson, H. (1995-07-01). "The intensity and magnitude of Holocene plinian eruptions from Mount St. Helens volcano". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. Models of Magnetic Processes and Volcanic Eruptions. 66 (1): 185–202. Bibcode:1995JVGR...66..185C. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(94)00059-P. ISSN 0377-0273.
  10. ↑ Gorshkov, G. S. (December 1959). "Gigantic eruption of the volcano bezymianny" (PDF). Bulletin Volcanologique. 20 (1): 77–109. Bibcode:1959BVol...20...77G. doi:10.1007/BF02596572. S2CID 129408765.
  11. ↑ Kirianov, Vladimir Yu (1994). "Volcanic Ash in Kamchatka as a Source of Potential Hazard to Air Traffic" (PDF). In Casadevall, Thomas J. (ed.). Volcanic Ash and Aviation Safety: Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Volcanic Ash and Aviation Safety. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin. Vol. 2047. p. 60.
  12. ↑ Rebolledo, Alejandro; Castruccio, Angelo; Aravena, Álvaro (2022). "Effusive–explosive transition on eruptions at Quizapu volcano: Re-analysis of the 1846-1847 and 1932 eruptions and conduit flow modeling". IAVCEI Scientific Assembly 2023: 883.
  13. ↑ Hildreth, Wes; Fierstein, Judy (2012). The Novarupta-Katmai Eruption of 1912—Largest Eruption of the Twentieth Century: Centennial Perspectives. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1791, 259 p.
  14. ↑ Hutchison, William; Sugden, Patrick; Burke, Andrea; Abbott, Peter; Ponomareva, Vera V.; et al. (7 January 2025). "The 1831 CE mystery eruption identified as Zavaritskii caldera, Simushir Island (Kurils)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 122 (1) e2416699122. doi:10.1073/pnas.2416699122. PMC 11725861. PMID 39793052.
  15. ↑ Kandlbauer, J.; Sparks, R.S.J. (2014). "New estimates of the 1815 Tambora eruption volume". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 286: 93–100. Bibcode:2014JVGR..286...93K. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.08.020.
  16. ↑ Plunkett, Gill; Sigl, Michael; McConnell, Joseph R.; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Chellman, Nathan J. (2023-02-01). "The significance of volcanic ash in Greenland ice cores during the Common Era". Quaternary Science Reviews. 301 107936. Bibcode:2023QSRv..30107936P. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107936. ISSN 0277-3791. S2CID 181849906.
  17. ↑ South Dakota State University (December 7, 2009). "Undocumented volcano contributed to extremely cold decade from 1810-1819". ScienceDaily.
  18. ↑ Delos Reyes, Perla J.; Bornas, Ma. Antonia V.; Dominey-Howes, Dale; Pidlaoan, Abigail C.; Magill, Christina R.; Solidum, Renato U. Jr. (February 2018). "A synthesis and review of historical eruptions at Taal Volcano, Southern Luzon, Philippines". Earth-Science Reviews. 177: 565–588. Bibcode:2018ESRv..177..565D. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.11.014. ISSN 0012-8252.
  19. ↑ Blong, Russell J.; Kurbatov, Andrei V. (2020). "Steps and missteps on the path to a 1665–1668 CE date for the VEI 6 eruption of Long Island, Papua New Guinea". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 395 106828. Bibcode:2020JVGR..39506828B. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2020.106828. S2CID 216171098.
  20. ↑ Briffa, K. R.; Jones, P. D.; Schweingruber, F. H.; Osborn, T. J. (1998-06-04). "Influence of volcanic eruptions on Northern Hemisphere summer temperature over the past 600 years". Nature. 393 (6684): 450–455. Bibcode:1998Natur.393..450B. doi:10.1038/30943. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4392636.
  21. 1 2 Plummer, Christopher T.; Curran, M. A. J.; van Ommen, Tas D.; Rasmussen, S.O.; Moy, A. D.; Vance, Tessa R.; Clausen, H. B.; Vinther, Bo M.; Mayewski, P. A. (2012-05-01). "An independently dated 2000-yr volcanic record from Law Dome, East Antarctica, including a new perspective on the dating of the c. 1450s eruption of Kuwae, Vanuatu". Climate of the Past Discussions. 8: 1567–1590. doi:10.5194/cpd-8-1567-2012.
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