Documentation of the Malagasy language

Documentation of the Malagasy language traces the early records of the Malagasy language compiled by European explorers, traders, and missionaries from the 17th to the 19th century. The principal early sources form a chronological corpus ranging from the first Malagasy–Dutch word list compiled by Frederick de Houtman (1603) and the first Malagasy–French numerals recorded by François Martin de Vitré (also 1603) to the first English–Malagasy dictionary, published in 1835. These works record Malagasy as it was spoken in various coastal regions, encompassing vocabularies, numerals, dialogues, and—in later instances—dictionaries and prayers. The London Missionary Society (LMS) missionaries produced the final major contributions to this early documentary tradition; their 1835 English–Malagasy dictionary, based predominantly on the Merina dialect, marks the transition to modern standardized Malagasy.

Early Dutch and French records (1603)

In 1603, Frederick de Houtman published in Amsterdam the Spraeck ende Woord-boeck inde Maleysche ende Madagaskarsche Talen, which contains a Dutch–Malagasy vocabulary and dialogues. De Houtman had learned Malagasy (Old Northern Betsimisaraka dialect) during his stay at Sainte-Marie and in Antongil Bay. The Malagasy vocabulary probably came from a Malagasy interpreter from these regions, who had spent four years with the Dutch and knew Dutch well. At the same time, in 1603, François Martin de Vitré noted a list of numbers in Southwestern Malagasy (Old Vezo or Old Masikoro) during his passage at Saint-Augustin Bay. Thus, Malay and Malagasy appear side by side in their works suggesting similarities.

Numbers in Old Malagasy (Southern and Northern, 1603)

Numbers in Old Malagasy (Southern and Northern in 1603)

#	Gloss	Martin de Vitré (Saint-Augustin Bay, 1603)	Frederick de Houtman (Saint-Marie & Antongil Bay, 1603)	Standard Malagasy
1	one	Issa	Issa / Areick	Isa/Iray
2	two	Roue	Roo	roa
3	three	Tello	Tello	telo
4	four	Effad	Efferts	efatra
5	five	Lime	Dimi	dimy
6	six	Enning	Ennin	enina
7	seven	Fruto	Fitoe	fito
8	eight	Vvoulo	Wallou	valo
9	nine	Siday	Sivy	sivy
10	ten	Faule	Foelou	folo
20	twenty		Roo poelo	roapolo
21	twenty-one		Roo poelo areick	iraika ambin’ny roapolo
22	twenty-two		Roo poelo roo	roa ambin’ny roapolo
23	twenty-three		Roo poelo tello	telo ambin’ny roapolo
24	twenty-four		Roo poelo efferts	efatra ambin’ny roapolo
25	twenty-five		Roo poelo dimi	dimy ambin’ny roapolo
26	twenty-six		Roo poelo ennin	enina ambin’ny roapolo
27	twenty-seven		Roo poelo fitoe	fito ambin’ny roapolo
28	twenty-eight		Roo poelo wallou	valo ambin’ny roapolo
29	twenty-nine		Roo poelo sivy	sivy ambin’ny roapolo
30	thirty		Tello poelo	telopolo
40	forty		Effert poelo	efapolo
50	fifty		Dimy poelo	dimampolo
60	sixty		Ennin poelo	enimpolo
70	seventy		Fitou poelo	fitopolo
80	eighty		Wallou poelo	valopolo
90	ninety		Sivy poelo	sivifolo
100	hundred		Siatou	zato
1000	thousand		Heetsi	arivo

Collected lexical items by Houtman (Old Northern Malagasy)

Collected Lexical Items by Houtman (Old Northern Malagasy)

#	Gloss	Old Northern Malagasy (Saint-Marie & Antongil Bay, 17th c.)	Standard Malagasy
1	You	Hannau	Anao
2	Ship	Laccan	Lakana
3	Here (past)	Tetoeu	Teto
4	To buy	Mevydy	Mividy
5	What	Innou	Inona
6	Water	Rano	Rano
7	Rice	Varre	Vary
8	Cow	Agombe	Omby
9	Honey	Tintelly	Tantely
10	We	Iahye	Izahay
11	Where are you from?	Lehataja nou?	Avy aiza anao?
12	Person	Ouloun	Olona
13	Far away	Labebey	Lavitra be
14	What's the name of the country?	Innou angarre tany?	Inona ny anaran'ny tany?
15	Our country is called Holland	Tany ney magebey Hollant	Holandy no anaran'ny taninay
16	Copper	Brahing	Varahina
17	Silver	Pellan	Volafotsy
18	Knife	Kissou	Antsy
19	Thief	Ampangalats	Mpangalatra
20	Merchant	Ampevarots	Mpivarotra
21	Leave that there	Avyla uw kony	Avelao eo
22	Night	Alin	Alina
23	Tomorrow	Hamerein	Rahampitso
24	God	Iang hary	Zanahary
25	All	Aby	Rehetra
26	Us	Atsiken	Isika
27	White/European	Vajaha	Vazaha
28	Goat	Osse	Osy
29	Milk	Rononne	Ronono
30	How much the oxen?	Firy n'ya agombe?	Ohatrinona ny omby?
31	Little	Hele	Kely
32	Cheap	Mora	Mora
33	Your boat	Ny-laccan hannau	Ny lakanao
34	Horn	Tandock	Tandroka
35	Why	Nahoen	Nahoana
36	To say/tell	Mevoullang	Miteny
37	Ear	Souffing	Sofina
38	Nose	Oroen	Orona
39	Dead	Naty	Maty
40	High/On top	Angambo	Ambony
41	Sick	Marare	Marary
42	Long	Lava	Lava
43	Short	Fohy	Fohy
44	Bad	Rratsy	Ratsy
45	Crazy	Lefack	Marary saina
46	White	Foetsy	Fotsy
47	When	Oviene	Oviana
48	Lemurian	Warck	Varika
49	Axe	Feck	Famaky
50	Penis	Latack	Lataka
51	Blood	Ra	Rà
52	Breast	Nounou	Nono
53	Powder	Vanja	Vanja
54	Dark	Mey sing	Maizina
55	Angry	Vingirt	Tezitra
56	To dream	Mang'noffy	Manonofy
57	King	Ampenjacke	Mpanjaka
58	Tired	Ballack	Vizana
59	Good	Tsara	Tsara
60	Egg	Atoulou / Atoelou	Atody
61	Island	Nossey	Nosy
62	Rain	Orang	Orana
63	Huge	Iackebey	Lehibe
64	Happy	Ravo	Faly
65	Neck	Wojong	Tenda
66	Hand	Tang'an	Tanana
67	Hair	Wullo	Volo
68	Bow/Crossbow	Faly	-
69	South	Antemoo	Atsimo
70	Chicken	Akoho	Akoho
71	Shark	Ansansa	Antsantsa
72	House	Tsangou	Trano
73	Skin	Hoedits	Hoditra
74	Yes	Iee	Eny / Ye
75	Steel	Wy	Vy
76	Wife	Vady	Vady
77	Child	Iaja	Zaza
78	Cheek	Feef	Fify
79	Year	Tawon	Taona
80	Spear	Liffong	Lefona
81	Light	Maivang	Maivana
82	Sky	Langits	Lanitra
83	Virgin	Mitouvoo	-
84	Moon	Voelan	Volana
85	Man	Lelahy	Lehilahy
86	Skinny	Mah'ia	Mahia
87	Mother	Renni	Reny
88	To watch/look at	Mijaha	Mijery
89	Nail	Vajangkoho	Hoho
90	To sell	Mandof	Mivarotra
91	Saved	Awotto	Avotra
92	To climb	Makats	Miakatra
93	Prince	Annack adien	Anakandriana
94	Pot	Balangi	Vilany
95	To learn	Mienjatsi	Mianatra
96	Spider	Fararets	-
97	Dry	Maeying	Maina
98	Red	Meynja	Mena
99	Rat	Vella vou	Voalavo
100	Fat	Mattavi	Matavy
101	Sweet	Mamy	Mamy
102	To count	Mangisa	Manisa
103	Sun	Masso anro	Masoandro
104	Afraid	Matahots	Matahotra
105	Mortar	Leong	Leona
106	Tooth	Niffy	Nify
107	Yesterday	Maddy	Omaly
108	Letter	Soerat	Soratra
109	To close	Afoedy	Ahidy
110	To wait	Mandingy	Miandry
111	Father	Ray	Ray

Richard Boothby's records from Saint Augustine Bay (1646)

Richard Boothby, in his 1646 work A Brief Discovery or Description of the Most Famous Island of Madagascar, or St. Laurence, recorded several words from the inhabitants of Saint Augustine's Bay (in present-day Toliara). The language spoken in that region is now classified as part of the Vezo dialect, which belongs to the Southern Malagasic dialect cluster—likely representing an early form of Proto-Vezo.

Comparative Vocabulary of St Augustine Bay Language (Boothby, 1646) and Standard Malagasy

#	Gloss	St Augustine Bay (Boothby, 17th c.)	Standard Malagasy
1	good	Chara	tsara
2	rope	Talle	tady
3	cloth	Lomba	lamba
4	lance	Leffo	lefona
5	tomorrow	Humeray	ampitso
6	salt	Syra	sira
7	palm of hand	Fala tanga	felatanana
8	tongue	Leela	lela
9	ear	Saffe	sofina
10	eye	Maca	maso
11	hair	Voyla	volo
12	shoulder	Sowkee	soroka
13	back (body)	Lemboshe	lamosina
14	butt	Voylee	vody
15	breast	Noeno	nono
16	hand	Tanga	tanana
17	teeth	Niffa	nify
18	chin	Soca	saoka
19	cow	Angomba	omby

François Cauche's southern Malagasy vocabulary (1651)

François Cauche travelled mostly in southern Madagascar in the regions inhabited by the Antanosy, Mahafaly, and Antandroy (Ampatres), but also briefly along the eastern coast among the Antaimoro (Matatane) and around Antongil Bay (Northern Betsimisaraka). He collected mostly vocabulary from the south, where he carried out the majority of his commercial exchanges. He is the first to record conversations in Malagasy, probably from southern and eastern Malagasy varieties, necessary for communication and trade. His observations and vocabulary were later published in Relations véritables et curieuses de l'isle de Madagascar par François Cauche, et du Brésil in 1651.

Numbers in Old Southern Malagasy (Cauche, 1651)

Numbers in Old Southern Malagasy (Cauche, 1651)

#	Gloss	Old Southern Malagasy (Cauche, 17th c.)	Standard Malagasy
1	one	Is	iray
2	two	ro	roa
3	three	tel	telo
4	four	ef	efatra
5	five	lime	dimy
6	six	enne	enina
7	seven	fuite	fito
8	eight	vale	valo
9	nine	cive	sivy
10	ten	foule	folo
11	eleven	Iray manifoule	iraika ambin’ny folo
12	twelve	ro manifoule	roa ambin’ny folo
13	thirteen	tel manifoule	telo ambin’ny folo
14	fourteen	ef manifoule	efatra ambin’ny folo
15	fifteen	lime manifoule	dimy ambin’ny folo
16	sixteen	enne manifoule	enina ambin’ny folo
17	seventeen	fuite manifoule	fito ambin’ny folo
18	eighteen	vale manifoule	valo ambin’ny folo
19	nineteen	cive manifoule	sivy ambin’ny folo
20	twenty	ropoule	roapolo
21	twenty-one	ropoule irai cambiombe	Iraika ambin'ny roapolo
22	twenty-two	ropoule ro cambiombe	roa ambin'ny roapolo
23	twenty-three	ropoule tel cambiombe	telo ambin'ny roapolo
30	thirty	tel poule	telopolo
40	forty	ef poule	efapolo
50	fifty	lia poule or lime poule	dimampolo
60	sixty	enne poule	enimpolo
70	seventy	fuite poule	fitopolo
80	eighty	vale poule	valopolo
90	ninety	cive poule	sivifolo
100	one hundred	zat	zato
200	two hundred	rozat	roanjato
300	three hundred	telzat	telonjato
400	four hundred	efsat	efajato
500	five hundred	lime zat	dimanjato
600	six hundred	ennezat	eninjato
700	seven hundred	fuite zat	fitonjato
800	eight hundred	vale zat	valonjato
900	nine hundred	cive zat	sivinjato
1000	one thousand	arrive or irecarive	arivo
2000	two thousand	roarive	roa arivo

Collected lexical items by Cauche (Old Southern Malagasy)

Collected Lexical Items by Cauche (Old Southern Malagasy)

#	Gloss	Old Southern Malagasy (Cauche, 17th c.)	Standard Malagasy
1	Canoe	Lacque	Lakana
2	Oil	Menach	Menaka
3	Red	Mene	Mena
4	Chicken	Acoo/acoho	Akoho
5	Fish	Fuie	Trondro
6	Rope	Tali	Tady
7	We	Zahai	Izahay
8	You (sing.)	Anno	Ianao
9	Cat	Pise	Saka
10	Dog	Ambo	Alika
11	Crazy	Maulle	Adala
12	Butter	Menacronon	Dibera
13	Anymore	Sasse	Intsony
14	Thin	Mahie	Mahia
15	Fat	Manesse	Matavy
16	Smelly	Mahibou	Maimbo
17	Afraid	Mattao	Matahotra
18	Person	Oule	Olona
19	Sun	Massuandre	Masoandro
20	Evening	Massuandre matte	Hariva
21	Hungry	Rez	Noana
22	Hot	Maye	Mafana
23	Cold	Manarre	Mangatsiaka
24	Little	Massessaie	Kely
25	Big	Croute baye	Lehibe
26	Good / Beautiful	So	Tsara
27	To cry	Toumangre	Mitomany
28	To sleep	Mandre	Matory
29	To drink	Minon	Misotro
30	To eat	Hyne	Mihinana
31	Steel	Vie	Vy
32	Bread	Moufe	Mofo
33	Silver	Voulafouche	Volafotsy
34	Gold	Voulameno	Volamena
35	Stone	Vate	Vato
36	Wind	Harre	Rivotra
37	Up / Above	Ambonne	Ambony
38	Tree	Aze	Hazo
39	Rum	Cique af	Toaka
40	Wine	Ciq	Divay
41	Sky	Arro	Lanitra
42	Earth	Tanne	Tany
43	Water	Ranne	Rano
44	Cold water	Ranne mangasi	Rano mangatsiaka
45	Fire	Affe	Afo
46	Spirit	Zin	Fanahy
47	Heart	Foo	Fo
48	Foot	Tambou	Tongotra
49	Tits	Nonne	Nono
50	Liver	Atte	Aty
51	Belly	Trou	Kibo
52	Hands	Tangue	Tanana
53	Butt/Ass	Fourin	VodY
54	Neck	Vouze	Tenda
55	Tooth	Nife	Nify
56	Tongue	Lelle	Lela
57	Mouth	Vave	Vava
58	Nose	Orre	Orona
59	Eye	Masse	Maso
60	Ear	Soufe	Sofina
61	Hair	Voule	Volo
62	Head	Loha	Loha
63	I / Me	Zaa	Izaho
64	He/She/It	Ize	Izy
65	Him/She/It	Ize	Izy
66	Meat	Hen	Hena
67	Too / Also	Coo	Koa
68	Dead	Matte	Maty
69	Tomorrow	Amaray	Ampitso
70	Morning	Empice	Maraina
71	Egg	Attoule	Atody

Étienne de Flacourt's Malagasy–French vocabulary (1658)

A small Malagasy–French vocabulary compiled by Étienne de Flacourt, former Governor of the French settlement at Fort-Dauphin (Tolagnaro), was published in Paris in 1658. It is the first printed work to include prayers in Malagasy. Flacourt likely contributed to the dictionary and a catechism prepared by the Lazarist Fathers, whom he later presented to the future Saint Vincent de Paul.

Comparative vocabulary and numerals (Flacourt, 1658)

Comparative Vocabulary of 17th Century Southern Malagasy (Flacourt) and Standard Malagasy

#	Gloss (English)	Old Southern Malagasy (Anosy, Mid-17th c.)	Standard Malagasy	Arabic / Swahili
1	Wine	Siche	Divay	Khamr (خمر)
2	Face	Lahatse / Tarehy	Tarehy	-
3	Theft	Fangalatse / Halatra	Halatra	-
4	To live	Mienghe	Miaina	-
5	Alive	Vellom	Velona	-
6	City / Village	Tanaha	Tanana	-
7	Old	Antetse	Antitra	-
8	Victory	Fanressehan	Fandresena	-
9	Clothes	Tsichine	Akanjo	-
10	Green	Mahitsou	Maintso	-
11	Stick	Anghira	Tsorakazo	-
12	Belly	Troc	Kibo	-
13	To sell	Mivarots	Mivarotra	-
14	Seller	Ompivarots	Mpivarotra	-
15	Wave	Mouza	Onjana	mawja (موجة)
16	To kill	Mamounou	Mamono	-
17	To find	Mahita	Mahita	-
18	A lot	Lohatse	Loatra	-
19	Earthquake	Hourouhourounitane	Horohoron-tany	-
20	Work	Hassa	Asa	-
21	To cut	Manapa	Manapaka	-
22	Betrayal	Fitacq	Fitaka	-
23	All	Abi	Avi	-
24	Early	Sahali	Sahady	-
25	Thunder	Varats	Varatra	-
26	Head	Loha	Loha	-
27	Tamarind	Montémonte	Voamadilo	-
28	On	Ambone	Ambony	-
29	South	Acimou	Atsimo	-
30	Sugarcane	Fare	Fary	-
31	Frequently	Matetech	Matetika	-
32	Suffering	Fiharets	Fijaliana	-
33	Witch / Sorcerer	Ompamousavé	Mpamosavy	-
34	To dream	Mahinouf	Manonofy	-
35	Solitude / Loneliness	Fitocan	Fitoka-monina	-
36	Sun	Massouandrou	Masoandro	-
37	Thirsty	Hettehette	Hetaheta	-
38	Only	Avau	Ihany	-
39	Alone	Irere / Iraiky	Irery	-
40	Salt	Sira	Sira	-
41	Dry	Mahé	Maina	-
42	Scorpion	Hala	Hala	-
43	To jump	Mamoca	Mambikina	-
44	To bleed	Mandevorha	Mandeha ra	-
45	Sand	Fasso	Fasika	-
46	Rice	Vare	Vary	-
47	Laughter	Hehé	Hehy	-
48	To return	Mipoulé	Miverina	-
49	Shark	Antsantsa	Antsantsa	-
50	To meet	Mifahita	Mihaona	-
51	To refuse	Mandaha	Mandà	-
52	Root	Foton / Vahan	Faka	-
53	What's this?	Hinne iou?	Inona io?	-
54	Who	Izo	Iza	-
55	Question	Fanghotaneia	Fanontaniana	-
56	Deep	Lalen	Lalina	-
57	To pray	Mkabiry	Mivavaka	Kabir (كبير)
58	To testify	Misahada	Mijoro vavolombelona	Yashhadu(شهد)
59	Wet	Lay	Lena	-
60	Dead	Mate	Maty	-
61	To bite	Manifats	Magnekitry	-
62	Sir	Roandria / Ranghandria	Andriamatoa	-
63	To threaten	Michinia	-	-
64	Bad	Ratsi	Ratsy	-
65	Medicine	Auli	Fanafody	-
66	To marry	Manambali	Manambady	-
67	Marie	Ramariama	Masina Maria	Maryam
68	Wedding	Fanambalian	Fanambadiana	-
69	Merchant	Ompivarotse	Mpivarotra	-
70	Misfortune	Vouhy	Voina	-
71	But	Fa	Fa	-
72	Bad	Ratsi	Ratsy	-
73	Hand	Tang	Tanana	-
74	Sick	Marre	Marary	-
75	Skiny	Mahiia	Mahiia	-
76	To settle	Monengh	Monina	-
77	Place	Touhere	Toerana	-
78	Lesson	Anatse	Anatra / Lesona	-
79	Tongue	Lela	Lela	-
80	Ugly	Ratsi	Ratsy	-
81	Milk	Ronono	Ronono	-
82	Language	Voulanh	Fiteny	-
83	Make	Tsianach	Farihy	-
84	There	Irocq	Io / Iroa (rare)	-
85	Day	Anrou	Andro	-
86	Happiness	Haravouan	Haravoana	-
87	Ever / Never	Tsiare / Insatse	Intsony	-
88	Jesus	Rahissa	Jesosy	Issa
89	Insult	Ompa	Ompa	-
90	Island	Nossi	Nosy	-
91	Here	Atoua	Ato	-
92	This	Itouy	Ito / Ity	-
93	Outside	Avella	Ivelany	-
94	Oil	Menach	Menaka	-
95	Owl	Vouroundoule	Vorondolo	-
96	Above / On	Ambone	Ambony	-
97	Axe	Feche	Famaky	-
98	Fat	Vonrac	Matavy	-
99	Gun	Ampigaratsebato	Basy	-
100	Fruit	Boa	Voankazo	-
101	River	Onghe	Renirano	Ayn (عين)
102	Fire	Afou	Afo	-
103	To flee	Milefa	Mitsoaka	-
104	Behind	Afara	Aoriana	-
105	To embark	Manhondra	Mitondrana	-
106	Equal	Mira	Mira	-
107	Image	Tsara	Sary	ṣūra(صورة)
108	Water	Ranou	Rano	-
109	Sweet	Mami	Mamy	-
110	To sleep	Mande	Mandry	-
111	In front of	Aloha	Aloha	-
112	Debt	Trousse	Trosa	-
113	Tooth	Nifi	Nify	-
114	Already	Lahame	Sahady	-
115	Tomorrow	Amarai	Rahampitso	-
116	Damned	Kafiry	Voaozona	-
117	To believe	Meinou	Mino	yu’minu (آمن)
118	Knife	Mes / Antsi	Antsy	-
119	Chest	Sandouc	Kesika	-
120	Key	Fanghalahilli	Fanalahidy	-
121	Sky	Langhits	Lanitra	-
122	Dog	Amboua	Alika	-
123	Horse	Farassa	Soavaly	-
124	Hot / Warm	Mahe	Mafana	-
125	Shirt	Camise	Lobaka	Qamis (قميص)
126	Cat	Pise	Saka	-
127	Camel	Angammerre	Rameva	Jammal (جمل)
128	Ring	Ampete	Peratra	Pete
129	Balance	Midza	Mizana	mīzān (ميزان)
130	With	Aman	Sy	-
131	Also	Coua	Koa	-

Numerals in 17th Century Southern Malagasy (Flacourt) and Standard Malagasy

#	Gloss	Old Southern Malagasy (Anosy, Mid-17th c.)	Standard Malagasy
1	One	Iraiche / Issa	Iray / Isa
2	Two	Roué / Rohi	Roa
3	Three	Tellou	Telo
4	Four	Efats	Efatra
5	Five	Limi	Dimy
6	Six	Enem	Enina
7	Seven	Fitou	Fito
8	Eight	Valou	Valo
9	Nine	Sivi	Sivy
10	Ten	Foulo	Folo
11	Eleven	Iranamanifoulo / Iracamanifoulo	Iraika ambin'ny folo
12	Twelve	Roé amanifoulo	Roa ambin'ny folo
13	Thirteen	Tellou amanifoulo	Telo ambin'ny folo
14	Fourteen	Effats amanifoulo	Efatra ambin'ny folo
15	Fifteen	Limi amanifoulo	Dimy ambin'ny folo
16	Sixteen	Enem amanifoulo	Enina ambin'ny folo
17	Seventeen	Fitou amani foulo	Fito ambin'ny folo
18	Eighteen	Valou amani foulo	Valo ambin'ny folo
19	Nineteen	Civi amani foulo	Sivy ambin'ny folo
20	Twenty	Ropoul	Roapolo
25	Twenty-five	Ropoul limi ambi	Dimy amby roapolo
30	Thirty	Tellopoul / Teloupoulou	Telopolo
40	Forty	Efatte poul / Effats poulo	Efapolo
50	Fifty	Liapoulo	Dimampolo
60	Sixty	Enempoul	Enimpolo
70	Seventy	Fitoupoul	Fito-polo
80	Eighty	Valoupoul	Valopolo
90	Ninety	Civifoulo	Sivifolo
100	One hundred	Zatou	Zato
150	One hundred fifty	Liapoul ambi Zatou	Dimampolo ambin'ny zato
500	Five hundred	Limizatou	Dimanjato
650	Six hundred fifty	Enem zatou inra liapoul	Dimampolo sy enin-zato
700	Seven hundred	Fitou Zatou	Fito zato
1,000	Thousand	Arrivou	Arivo
10,000	Ten thousand	Foulo Arrivou	Iray halina
100,000	One hundred thousand	Zatou Arrivou	Iray hetsy
1,000,000	Million	Ala	Tapitrisa

Robert Drury's southern Malagasy vocabulary (1729)

Robert Drury, an English sailor who spent 15 years in southern Madagascar (including Androy, Fierenana, now known as Tulear, and Menabe), collected a vocabulary of southern Malagasy words as spoken in the early 1700s, which he published in his memoirs, Madagascar, or Robert Drury's Journal, in 1729 with the assistance of Daniel Defoe.

Numbers in Southern Malagasy (Drury, early 18th century)

Numbers in Southern Malagasy (Drury), Early 18th Century

#	Gloss	Old Southern Malagasy (Androy, Fierenana & Menabe, Early 18th c.)	Standard Malagasy
1	one	Eser	Isa / Iray
2	two	Roaa	Roa
3	three	folu	telo
4	four	effuchts	efatra
5	five	deeme	dimy
6	six	eanning	enina
7	seven	feeto	fito
8	eight	varlo	valo
9	nine	seve	sivy
10	ten	folo	folo
13	thirteen	folotaluambe	telo ambin'ny folo
15	fifteen	folodeeme amby	dimy ambin'ny folo
17	seventeen	folofeetoambe	fito ambin'ny folo
20	twenty	roaafolo	roapolo
25	twenty-five	rowafolo deeme amby	dimy ambin'ny roapolo
30	thirty	talofolo	telopolo
35	thirty-five	Talofulo deeme amby	dimy ambin'ny folo
40	forty	effuch folo	efapolo
45	forty-five	effuchfolo deeme amby	dimy amby efapolo
50	fifty	deemefolo	dimampolo
55	fifty-five	deemefolo deeme amby	dimy amby dimampolo
60	sixty	ennig folo	enimpolo
65	sixty-five	ennig folo deeme amby	dimy amby enin-polo
70	seventy	feeto folo	fitopolo
75	seventy-five	fetofolo deeme amby	dimy amby fitopolo
80	eighty	varlofolo	valopolo
85	eighty-five	varlofolo deeme amby	dimy amby valopolo
90	ninety	sevefolo	sivifolo
95	ninety-five	seveefolo deeme amby	dimy amby sivifolo
100	hundred	zawto	zato
600	six hundred	eanning zawto	enin-jato
700	seven hundred	feeto zawto	fito zato
800	eight hundred	varlozawto	valo zato
1000	thousand	arevo	arivo
6000	six thousand	eanning arevo	enina arivo
7000	seven thousand	feeto arevo	fito arivo
8000	eight thousand	varlo arevo	valo arivo

Comparative vocabulary (Drury)

Comparative Vocabulary of Southern Malagasy (Robert Drury, early 1700s) and Standard Malagasy

#	Gloss	Southern Malagasy (Drury, early 18th c.)	Standard Malagasy
1	South	Ateemo	Atsimo
2	Ship	Sambo	Sambo
3	Soft	Merlemma	Malemy
4	Sky	Longitchs	Lanitra
5	King	Panzaccar	Mpanjaka
6	Good	Suer	Tsara
7	Bad	Rawtche	Ratsy
8	To buy	Mevele	Mividy
9	Rope	Tolle	Tady
10	Cold	Merninchy	Mangatsiaka
11	Child	Annack	Zaza
12	Cloud	Rawho	Rahona
13	Cat	Chacker	Saka
14	Lance	Luffu	Lefona
15	Tongue	Leller	Lela
16	Teeth	Neefa	Nify
17	Sand	Fasse	Fasika
18	Salt	Serrer	Sira
19	Sugar	Serermame	Siramamy
20	Sweet	Marme	Mamy
21	White man	Verzarhar	Vazaha
22	Wet	Lay	Lena
23	Egg	Tule	Atody
24	Knife	Messu	Antsy
25	Ant	Vetick	Vitsika
26	Dark	Myeak	Maizina
27	Eye	Mossu	Maso
28	Foot	Feendeer	Tongotra
29	Fish	Feer	Trondro
30	Friend	Lonego	Namana
31	White	Fute	Fotsy
32	What ?	Eno	Inona?
33	This	Toe	Ity / Izao
34	Pistol	Plato	Poleta
35	People	Olo	Olona
36	Neck	Voozzo	Vozona
37	Moon	Vooler	Volana
38	Milk	Ronoonu	Ronono
39	Man	Loyhe	Lehilahy
40	Million	Arrla	Arivo
41	Tomorrow	Hummerwha	Rahampitso
42	Mouse	Varlarvo	Voalavo
43	Night	Aulla	Alina
44	North	Avarruchs	Avaratra
45	Net	Arratto	Harato
46	Little	Kala	Kely
47	Low	Eever	Ambany
48	Knife	Messu	Antsy
49	Horse	Suvaller	Soavaly
50	How many ?	Fera ?	Firy?
51	Hatchet	Fermackey	Famaky
52	To hear	Merray	Mihaino
53	Run	Lomoy	Mihazakazaka
54	Spoon	Suto	Sotro
55	Fat	Vonedruck	Matavy
56	Full	Fenu	Feno
57	To speak	Mevolengher	Miteny / Mivolana
58	Crow	Quark	Goaika
59	Belly	Troke	Kibo
60	Bitter	Merfaughts	Mangidy
61	Bullet	Buller	Bala
62	Bone	Towler	Taolana
63	Bread	Moffu	Mofo
64	Call	Kyhu	Miantso
65	Ear	Sofee	Sofina
66	Gun	Ampegaurrutchs	Basy
67	East	Teenongher	Atsinanana
68	Garment	Sekey / Lamber	Akanjo / Lamba
69	Small	Merlinnick	Madinika
70	Sea	Reac	Ranomasina
71	Scissors	Hette	Hety
72	Spider	Morrotongher	Hala
73	West	Andreffer	Andrefana
74	Sunday	Alhaida	Alahady
75	Monday	Alletinine	Alatsinainy
76	Tuesday	Tallorter	Talata
77	Wednesday	Alareerbeer	Alarobia
78	Thursday	Commeeshe	Alakamisy
79	Friday	Jummor	Zoma
80	Saturday	Sarbueche	Asabotsy

Le Gentil's records from northern and southern Madagascar (1760s)

During his visit to Madagascar, Guillaume Le Gentil recorded several Malagasy words, chiefly in use in the northeastern regions — particularly Antongil Bay, Sainte-Marie and Foulpointe — as well as in Fort-Dauphin. He did not provide details regarding the dialect spoken in Fort-Dauphin, mentioning only differences in greetings. His work focused primarily on the northern dialect in his book Voyage dans les mers de l'Inde, published in 1781. Le Gentil resided in Madagascar on three occasions, in 1761, 1762, and 1763.

Words in Old Malagasy Collected by Le Gentil (Southern and Northern, 1760s)

#	Gloss	Le Gentil (Anosy, 1760s)	Le Gentil (Saint-Marie, Foulpointe & Antongil Bay, 1760s)	Standard Malagasy
1	Good morning	Salama	Finar tanao	Salama
2	Good	Soüa	Sara	Tsara
3	Money		Vola	Vola
4	Girl		Cala	Zazavavy
5	What's new?		Acor cabar ?	Inona ny vaovao ?
6	Nothing new		sis-cabar / sis	Tsisy vaovao / tsisy
7	I am fine		pola-sara
8	Water		ranou	rano
9	Sea		ranou-masse	ranomasina
10	White		Foutchy	Fotsy
11	Silver sand		pacem-bola	fasimbola
12	Foot		Oung	Tongotra
13	Big / Huge		bé	be
14	Many		marou	maro
15	Bad		ratchi	ratsy
16	A lot		marou-bé	marobe
17	Ox		aombé	omby
18	White / European		Vasa	Vazaha

Claude Bernard Challan's dictionary (1773)

Claude Bernard Challan compiled a vocabulary in the 18th century with the help of two Malagasy slaves, primarily collecting words from central and eastern Madagascar, especially Betsimisaraka and Merina. According to Linah Ravonjiarisoa, this edition is richer and more modern, and it includes, for the first time in translation, a sample of Merina words.

In 1773, the Royal Printing House of Mauritius published his work as Challan, Claude Bernard (Abbot), Vocabulaire malgache distribué en deux parties : La première : françois et malgache – la seconde : malgache et françois, which constitutes the very first Malagasy–French and French–Malagasy dictionary.

Numbers and vocabulary in Challan's dictionary (1773)

Numbers in Old Malagasy Isle de France (Challand), 18th Century

#	Gloss	18th Century Malagasy (Challand, Isle de France)	Standard Malagasy
1	one	Rec	Iray
2	two	Roué	Roa
3	three	Télou	Telo
4	four	Effat	Efatra
5	five	Dimi	Dimy
6	six	Henne	Enina
7	seven	Fitou	Fito
8	eight	Valou	Valo
9	nine	Civi	Sivy
10	ten	Polou	Folo
11	eleven	Polou rec ambé	Iraika ambin’ny folo
12	twelve	Polou roué ambé	Roa ambin’ny folo
13	thirteen	Polou télou ambé	Telo ambin’ny folo
14	fourteen	Polou effat ambé	Efatra ambin’ny folo
15	fifteen	Polou dimi ambé	Dimy ambin’ny folo
16	sixteen	Polou henne ambé	Enina ambin’ny folo
17	seventeen	Polou fitou ambé	Fito ambin’ny folo
18	eighteen	Polou valou ambé	Valo ambin’ny folo
19	nineteen	Polou civi ambé	Sivy ambin’ny folo
20	twenty	Roué polou	Roapolo
25	twenty-five	Roué polou dimi ambé	Dimy amby roapolo
30	thirty	Télou polou	Telopolo
40	forty	Effat polou	Efapolo
50	fifty	Dimi polou	Dimampolo
60	sixty	Henne polou	Enimpolo
70	seventy	Fitou polou	Fitopolo
80	eighty	Valou polou	Valopolo
90	ninety	Civi polou	Sivifolo
100	one hundred	Zatou	Zato
101	one hundred one	Zatou rec ambé	Iray amby zato
115	one hundred fifteen	Zatou polou dimi ambé	Dimy ambin’ny folo amby zato
200	two hundred	Roué zatou	Roa zato
300	three hundred	Télou zatou	Telo zato
400	four hundred	Effat zatou	Efatra zato
500	five hundred	Dimi zatou	Diman-jato
600	six hundred	Henne zatou	Enin-jato
700	seven hundred	Fitou zatou	Fito zato
800	eight hundred	Valou zatou	Valo zato
900	nine hundred	Civi zatou	Sivy zato
1000	one thousand	Arrive	Arivo
5000	five thousand	Dimi arrive	Dimy arivo
10000	ten thousand	Polou arrive	Folo arivo

Comparative Vocabulary of 18th Century Isle de France (Challand) Malagasy and Standard Malagasy

#	Gloss (English)	18th Century Malagasy (Challand, Isle de France)	Standard Malagasy
1	Hot	Mafanne	mafana
2	Cat	Saca	saka
3	Goat	Bingue	osy
4	Sky	Lanhits / Languets	lanitra
5	Lemon	Vouangue	voasary (voasarimakirana)
6	Chest / Trunk	Vata	vata
7	How	Acore	ahoana
8	Crow	Gouaque	Goaika
9	Rope	Tade	tady
10	To run	Mihazacazac	mihazakazaka
11	Knife	Quiche / Messou	antsy
12	Toad	Boucaette	sahona
13	Frog	Sahon	sahona
14	Spoon	Sourouc / Sorbolla	sotro
15	To give birth	mamaitte	miteraka
16	Steel	Sitily	vy
17	Needle	Filou	fanjaitra
18	Spider	Farorats	fanala
19	Plate	Capilla	lovia
20	Stick	Anguira	Tsorakazo
21	Low / Bottom	Iva	ambany
22	Good / Well	Sara	tsara
23	White	Foutchi	fotsy
24	White European	Vaza	vazaha
25	Ox / Beef	Ahombé	omby
26	Good morning/How are you ?	Finarts	manao ahoana
27	Belt	Ette	fehikibo
28	How many	Phiri	firy
29	God	Zaanhar	Zanahary
30	Medicine	Fangafoudi	fanafody
31	Equal	Mieran	mitovy
32	Devil	Belitch	devoly
33	Iron	Vi	vy
34	Woman / Wife	Veavi / Ampela	vehivavy
35	Axe	Afamaqué	famaky
36	Yellow	Hazac	mavo
37	He / She	Isi	izy
38	Day	Androu	andro
39	Sick	Mararé / Manguélo	marary
40	Bad	Ratchi	ratsy
41	Sea	Ranoumasse	ranomasina
42	Honey	Tintely	tantely
43	Noon / Midday	Antou androu	atoandro
44	Me / I	Zaho	izaho / aho
45	Month	Volanne	volana
46	Mountain	Vohitz	vohitra / tendrombohitra
47	Mister / Sir	Roandrian	Andriamatoa
48	Dead / Death	Maté	maty
49	Black	Maenti	mainty
50	To swim	Milouman / Mandaoun	milomano
51	We / Us	Zahaye	izahay / isika
52	Chili / Pepper	Saceye	sakay
53	Fish	Loc	trondro
54	Door	Tamianne / Varavanguene	varavarana
55	When	Ovienne / Ouvienne	oviana
56	Something	Raha	zavatra
57	What	Inou	inona
58	Who	Zové / Zovi	iza
59	Root	Vahatz	faka
60	Rice	Var	vary
61	Sand	Facinne	fasika
62	Dry	Mayn	maina
63	Evening	Arrive	hariva
64	Sorcerer / Witch	Ampamousavé	mpamosavy
65	Sugar	Ciramamé	siramamy
66	Tobacco	Tanbac / Nicotiana	Paraky
67	You (singular)	Hano	ianao
68	Suitcase / Luggage	Vatha	valizy
69	Belly / Stomach	Votac / Quibou	kibo
70	You (plural)	Hanareo	ianareo
71	Mother	Nini	reny / neny
72	Fool / Mad	Maoli / Addal / Leffac	adala
73	Angel	Oulis	anjely
74	Demon	Angatz	Demony
75	Devil	Belich	Devoly
76	Wine	Toc	Divay
77	Vinegar	Matsicou	Vinaigitra

Barthélemy Huet de Froberville's manuscripts (1816)

In 1816, Barthélemy Huet de Froberville compiled several major manuscripts documenting the Malagasy language in Île de France (present-day Mauritius). Although never printed, these works—particularly his French–Malagasy dictionary—were later instrumental in the development of Malagasy linguistic studies. In 1833, J. Dumont d’Urville published an extract from Froberville's Great Dictionary without acknowledging him as the author. Froberville's work inspired missionary efforts to update a new dictionary in the dialect spoken mostly in Imerina, which was later published in 1835 as the first English–Malagasy dictionary and is closer to modern-day standard Malagasy.

Comparative Vocabulary of Early 19th Century Isle de France (Froberville) Malagasy and Standard Malagasy

#	Gloss (English)	Froberville (Isle de France, 1816)	Standard Malagasy
1	Man	Lahe	Lehilahy
2	Human	Hulu / Ouloun	Olona
3	Woman	Ampelle / Vave	Vehivavy
4	Father	Rai / Amproi / Baba	Ray
5	Mother	Nin / Rini / Ampoindr	Reny
6	Son	Zana Dahe	Zanakalahy
7	Children	Anak / Zenak	Zanaka
8	Brothers	Royloyhe / Analahe	Rahalahy / Analahy
9	Ant	Vitsik	Vitsika
10	White	Foutsi	Fotsy
11	Gun	Pingaratch / Ampigaratch / Ampigaratsi	Basy
12	You (Singular)	Hanau / Hano / Ano	Anao
13	You (Plural)	Anareo / Hanareo	Anareo
14	To Buy	Mividi	Mividy
15	Prophet	Antou Moua	Mpaminany
16	When	Ouvi	Oviana
17	Question	Fang Hontania	Fanontaniana
18	To Refuse	Mandaha	Mandà
19	Period (Woman)	Aret Andilou	Fadim-bolana
20	Water	Ranou	Rano
21	Knife	Kisch / Fandili / Kissou / Antsi / Mes / Messou	Antsy
22	Chicken	Akoho Vavai	Akoho
23	Cow	Ahomb / Anghomb	Omby
24	Cat	Pisl / Saka	Saka
25	Dog	Amboa / Amboua / Kiva	Alika
26	To Choose	Mifidi / Mifili	Mifidy
27	Circumcised	Mifora	Mifora
28	Sky	Langhits / Langhetch / Lanits	Lanitra
29	Pig	Lambou	Kisoa
30	Rope	Tadi / Tali	Tady
31	Crow	Gouakh	Goaika
32	To Run	Mihazak Azak / Miloumaï	Mihazakazaka
33	To Sing	Missa / Mibabou	Mihira
34	Vagina	Tingui/fouri	Fory
35	Spider	Farouratch	Fanala
36	Wood	Hazou / Kakazou	Hazo
37	Red	Mena	Mena
38	Pot	Vilagni	Vilany
39	Prostitute	Ompanheira	Mpivarotena
40	Easy	Mora	Mora
41	Leaf	Raven Kazou	Ravin-kazou
42	Fire	Afo / Mote / Langourou	Afo
43	Slave	Andevou / Dzama	Andevo
44	Thorn	Fatsi / Roui	Tsilo
45	Sword	Antsivir	Sabatra
46	Erection	Mitanghets	Dangitra
47	Liquor	Tok / Touokh / Touakh / Tokaraf	Toaka
48	Behind	Arian / Afara	Aoriana
49	Axe	Feka / Afa Makhe	Famaky
50	Siren	Zavav Andranou	Zazavavindrano
51	Every Day	Andrakala / Isandrou	Isanandro
52	Demon	Angatz	Demony
53	Church	Trangho Fissandrian	Fiangonana
54	Ghost	Sakar / Anghats	Matotoa
55	Stitch	Taretch	Tarehitra
56	To Fuck	Milela	Milely
57	To Flee	Milefa	Mitsoaka
58	Boy	Kolahe / Lalahe Mitovou	Zazalahy
59	Spoon	Sotrouk / Amanghab	Sotroka
60	Stick	Anghira / Kibaï	Kobay
61	Belt	Hetch	Fehikibo
62	Equal	Mira	Mira
63	Black	Mintin	Mainty
64	Root	Vahatr / Vahats / Fouton	Faka / Fototra
65	Sugar	Sira Mam	Siramamy
66	Angel	Malaingka / Koukou Lampou / Oulis / Dzini	Anjely
67	Wheat	Var Vazaha / Trigo	Varimbazaha
68	Seashore	Amourou Dranou Massin	Amoron-dranomasina
69	Bottle	Tawang	Tavohangy
70	Sheep	Berekh / Ahondre / Angondri Vave	Ondry
71	To burn	Mang Hourou / Mahi	Mandoro / May

The first English–Malagasy dictionary (1835)

In 1835, the first English–Malagasy dictionary was published, based largely on the Merina dialect of Imerina. This work, compiled by missionaries influenced by Froberville's earlier manuscripts, represents a significant step toward the standardization of Malagasy. It is much closer to modern standard Malagasy than earlier records, reflecting the emergence of the Merina dialect as the prestige variety that would later form the basis of official Malagasy.

Comparative Vocabulary of Malagasy in the 1835 English–Malagasy Dictionary by J. J. Freeman and Modern Malagasy

#	Gloss (English)	Freeman (Imerina, 1835)	Modern Malagasy
1	Man	Lehilahy	Lehilahy
2	Thorn	Tsilo	Tsilo
3	Prostitute	Mpiangy / Mpijejojejo	Mpivaro-tena
4	Alphabet	Abidy	Abidy
5	Boots	Behoty	Baoty
6	Bribe	Tambitamby / Kolikoly	Kolikoly
7	Conversation	Tafasiry	Resaka
8	Angel	Iraka / Anjely	Anjely
9	Angry	Tezitra / Vinitra	Tezitra
10	Apple	Apoly	Paoma
11	Butter	Rononomandry	Dibera
12	Carrot	Karoty	Karoty
13	Christian	Kiristiana	Kristianina
14	To Climb	Miakatra / Mianikia	Miakatra / Mianika
15	To Close	Mandrindrina	Manidy
16	Cold	Mangatsiaka / Manara / Mangitsy	Mangatsiaka
17	Color	Volony	Loko
18	Divorce	Fisaoram-bady	Fisaraham-panambadiana
19	Duck	Vorombazaha / Ganagana	Ganagana
20	Dwarf	Botry / Zeny	—
21	Ejaculation	Tora-paza / Vavaka fohifohy	Mandefa tsirinaina
22	Fork	Fisondrona / Fitrebikia	Forosety
23	Fornication	Filambehivavy / Fijanganjangana	Fijanganjangana
24	Fragile	Malia / Malemy	Malemy
25	Fruit	Voankazo	Voankazo
26	Gas	Gasy	Entona fandrehitra
27	Ginger	Sakamalao	Sakamalao / Sakaviro
28	Gun	Basy	Basy
29	Horse	Soavaly	Soavaly
30	How	Manao akory / Akory / Manao ahoana / Ahoana	Ahoana
31	Dog	Amboa / Alikia	Alika
32	Medicine	Ody / Fanafody	Fanafody
33	Middle	Afovoany / Tenatenany	Afovoany
34	Million	Tapitrisa	Tapitrisa
35	Needle	Fanjaitra / Filou	Fanjaitra
36	Oil	Solikia	Menaka
37	One	Iray / Iraikia	Iray
38	Owl	Vorondolo	Vorondolo
39	Ox	Omby	Omby
40	Paint	Loko	Loko
41	Polygamy	Famporafesana	Fampirafesana
42	Potato	Ovim-bazaha	Ovy
43	Poverty	Alahelo	Fahantrana
44	Priest	Mpisorona	Pretra
45	Purple	Manato	Volomparasy
46	Ragamuffin	Olondratsy	Jiolahy
47	Rebel	Mpiodina	Mpikomy
48	Rebellion	Fiodinana	Fikomiana
49	Here	Etikatra / Etoakatra / Etoana / Eto	Eto / Ety
50	Judge	Andriambaventy	Mpitsara
51	English	Angilisy	Anglisy
52	There	Ary / Arikitra / Erikitra / Ery	Ary
53	Musket	Bedohaka	—
54	Bayonet	Benitra	—
55	Enough	Etsaka	—
56	Goose	Gisy	Gisa
57	Razor	Hareza	Hareza
58	This / These	Ity / Itikitra / Itony	Ity
59	That / Those	Itsy / Itsiakatra / Itsiana	Itsy
60	Syphilis	Kibainjatovo	—
61	Old Man	Rangahy	—
62	Fat	Sabora	Zabora
63	Torn	Rota / Rovitra	Rovitra
64	Soap	Savoha / Savony	Savony
65	Last Year	Taonitsy	Taon-dasa
66	Female Servant	Vadifady	—
67	Smile	Vanikia	—
68	Seal	Kase fanavandoko	Kase	—
69	Soldier	Sorodany / Miaramila	Miaramila
70	Sweetheart	Sakaiza / Vazo	Sakaiza
71	Toilet	Fiankajoana	—
72	Twitter	Mikiaka	—
73	To beat	Mandaboka	Mandaroka
74	Father	Ray/Iangy	Ray
75	Vagabond	Olomanga	—
76	Large	Makadiry	—
77	Prince/princess	Marolahy	—

See also

• Malagasy language